Glycine Binding Site Research Articles

Administration of riluzole into the basolateral amygdala has an anxiolytic-like effect and enhances recognition memory in the rat

It is widely thought that inactivation of the glutamatergic system impairs recognition memory in rodents. However, we previously demonstrated that systemic administration of riluzole, which blocks the glutamatergic system, enhances recognition memory in the rat novel object recognition (NOR) test. The mechanisms underlying this paradoxical effect of riluzole on recognition memory remain unclear. In the present study, adult male Wistar rats were bilaterally cannulated in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) to examine the effects of intra-BLA administration of riluzole. We also compared the effects of riluzole with those of d-cycloserine, a partial agonist at the glycine binding site on the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. The BLA plays a critical role not only in recognition memory, but also in the regulation of anxiety. In the present study, intra-BLA administration of riluzole or d-cycloserine enhanced recognition memory in the NOR test. It was previously suggested that recognition memory can be strongly affected by the state of anxiety in rodents. Interestingly, intra-BLA administration of riluzole, but not d-cycloserine, produced a potent anxiolytic-like effect in the elevated plus-maze test. Thus, the enhancement of recognition memory by riluzole might be an indirect effect resulting from the anxiolytic-like action of the intra-BLA administration of the drug, and may not be directly related to inhibition of the glutamatergic system. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms underlying the memory enhancing effect of riluzole.

Effects of sarcosine and N, N-dimethylglycine on NMDA receptor-mediated excitatory field potentials

BackgroundSarcosine, a glycine transporter type 1 inhibitor and an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor co-agonist at the glycine binding site, potentiates NMDA receptor function. Structurally similar to sarcosine, N,N-dimethylglycine (DMG) is also N-methyl glycine-derivative amino acid and commonly used as a dietary supplement. The present study compared the effects of sarcosine and DMG on NMDA receptor-mediated excitatory field potentials (EFPs) in mouse medial prefrontal cortex brain slices using a multi-electrode array system.ResultsGlycine, sarcosine and DMG alone did not alter the NMDA receptor-mediated EFPs, but in combination with glutamate, glycine and its N-methyl derivatives significantly increased the frequency and amplitude of EFPs. The enhancing effects of glycine analogs in combination with glutamate on EFPs were remarkably reduced by the glycine binding site antagonist 7-chlorokynurenate (7-CK). However, DMG, but not sarcosine, reduced the frequency and amplitude of EFPs elicited by co-application of glutamate plus glycine. D-cycloserine, a partial agonist at the glycine binding site on NMDA receptors, affected EFPs in a similar manner to DMG. Furthermore, DMG, but not sarcosine, reduced the frequencies and amplitudes of EFPs elicited by glutamate plus D-serine, another endogenous ligand for glycine binding site.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that sarcosine acts as a full agonist, yet DMG is a partial agonist at glycine binding site of NMDA receptors. The molecular docking analysis indicated that the interactions of glycine, sarcosine, and DMG to NMDA receptors are highly similar, supporting that the glycine binding site of NMDA receptors is a critical target site for sarcosine and DMG.

Prediction of N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor GluN1-Ligand Binding Affinity by a Novel SVM-Pose/SVM-Score Combinatorial Ensemble Docking Scheme

The glycine-binding site of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunit GluN1 is a potential pharmacological target for neurodegenerative disorders. A novel combinatorial ensemble docking scheme using ligand and protein conformation ensembles and customized support vector machine (SVM)-based models to select the docked pose and to predict the docking score was generated for predicting the NMDAR GluN1-ligand binding affinity. The predicted root mean square deviation (RMSD) values in pose by SVM-Pose models were found to be in good agreement with the observed values (n = 30, r2 = 0.928–0.988, = 0.894–0.954, RMSE = 0.002–0.412, s = 0.001–0.214), and the predicted pKi values by SVM-Score were found to be in good agreement with the observed values for the training samples (n = 24, r2 = 0.967, = 0.899, RMSE = 0.295, s = 0.170) and test samples (n = 13, q2 = 0.894, RMSE = 0.437, s = 0.202). When subjected to various statistical validations, the developed SVM-Pose and SVM-Score models consistently met the most stringent criteria. A mock test asserted the predictivity of this novel docking scheme. Collectively, this accurate novel combinatorial ensemble docking scheme can be used to predict the NMDAR GluN1-ligand binding affinity for facilitating drug discovery.

Disruption of a putative intersubunit electrostatic bond enhances agonist efficacy at the human α1 glycine receptor

Partial agonists have lower efficacies than compounds considered ‘full agonists’, eliciting submaximal responses even at saturating concentrations. Taurine is a partial agonist at the glycine receptor (GlyR), a member of the cys-loop ligand-gated ion channel superfamily. The molecular mechanisms responsible for agonism are not fully understood but evidence suggests that efficacy at these receptors is determined by conformational changes that occur early in the process of receptor activation. We previously identified a residue located near the human α1 glycine binding site (aspartate-97; D97) that, when mutated to arginine (D97R), results in GlyR channels opening spontaneously with a high open probability, mimicking the effects of saturating glycine concentrations on wildtype GlyR. This D97 residue is hypothesized to form an electrostatic interaction with arginine-119 on an adjacent subunit, stabilizing the channel in a shut state. Here we demonstrate that the disruption of this putative bond increases the efficacy of partial agonists including taurine, as well as two other β-amino acid partial agonists, β-aminobutyric acid (β-ABA) and β-aminoisobutyric acid (β-AIBA). Even the subtle charge-conserving mutation of D97 to glutamate (D97E) markedly affects partial agonist efficacy. Mutation to the neutral alanine residue in the D97A mutant mimics the effects seen with D97R, indicating that charge repulsion does not significantly affect these findings. Our findings suggest that the determination of efficacy following ligand binding to the glycine receptor may involve the disruption of an intersubunit electrostatic interaction occurring near the agonist binding site.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Novel Multi-target-Directed Benzazepines Against Excitotoxicity.

Excitotoxicty, a key pathogenic event is characteristic of the onset and development of neurodegeneration. The glutamatergic neurotransmission mediated through different glutamate receptor subtypes plays a pivotal role in the onset of excitotoxicity. The role of NMDA receptor (NMDAR), a glutamate receptor subtype, has been well established in the excitotoxicity pathogenesis. NMDAR overactivation triggers excessive calcium influx resulting in excitotoxic neuronal cell death. In the present study, a series of benzazepine derivatives, with the core structure of 3-methyltetrahydro-3H-benzazepin-2-one, were synthesised in our laboratory and their NMDAR antagonist activity was determined against NMDA-induced excitotoxicity using SH-SY5Y cells. In order to assess the multi-target-directed potential of the synthesised compounds, Aβ1-42 aggregation inhibitory activity of the most potent benzazepines was evaluated using thioflavin T (ThT) and Congo red (CR) binding assays as Aβ also imparts toxicity, at least in part, through NMDAR overactivation. Furthermore, neuroprotective, free radical scavenging, anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic activities of the two potential test compounds (7 and 14) were evaluated using primary rat hippocampal neuronal culture against Aβ1-42-induced toxicity. Finally, in vivo neuroprotective potential of 7 and 14 was assessed using intracerebroventricular (ICV) rat model of Aβ1-42-induced toxicity. All of the synthesised benzazepines have shown significant neuroprotection against NMDA-induced excitotoxicity. The most potent compound (14) showed relatively higher affinity for the glycine binding site as compared with the glutamate binding site of NMDAR in the molecular docking studies. 7 and 14 have been shown experimentally to abrogate Aβ1-42 aggregation efficiently. Additionally, 7 and 14 showed significant neuroprotective, free radical scavenging, anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic properties in different in vitro and in vivo experimental models. Finally, 7 and 14 attenuated Aβ1-42-induced tau phosphorylation by abrogating activation of tau kinases, i.e. MAPK and GSK-3β. Thus, the results revealed multi-target-directed potential of some of the synthesised novel benzazepines against excitotoxicity.

The Anticonvulsant Activity of a Flavonoid-Rich Extract from Orange Juice Involves both NMDA and GABA-Benzodiazepine Receptor Complexes.

The usage of dietary supplements and other natural products to treat neurological diseases has been growing over time, and accumulating evidence suggests that flavonoids possess anticonvulsant properties. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a flavonoid-rich extract from orange juice (OJe) in some rodent models of epilepsy and to explore its possible mechanism of action. The genetically audiogenic seizures (AGS)-susceptible DBA/2 mouse, the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizures in ICR-CD1 mice and the WAG/Rij rat as a genetic model of absence epilepsy with comorbidity of depression were used. Our results demonstrate that OJe was able to exert anticonvulsant effects on AGS-sensible DBA/2 mice and to inhibit PTZ-induced tonic seizures, increasing their latency. Conversely, it did not have anti-absence effects on WAG/Rij rats. Our experimental findings suggest that the anti-convulsant effects of OJe are likely mediated by both an inhibition of NMDA receptors at the glycine-binding site and an agonistic activity on benzodiazepine-binding site at GABAA receptors. This study provides evidences for the antiepileptic activity of OJe, and its results could be used as scientific basis for further researches aimed to develop novel complementary therapy for the treatment of epilepsy in a context of a multitarget pharmacological strategy.

Conformational Selection and Submillisecond Dynamics of the Ligand-binding Domain of the N-Methyl-d-aspartate Receptor

The N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are heteromeric non-selective cation channels that require the binding of glycine and glutamate for gating. Based on crystal structures, the mechanism of partial agonism at the glycine-binding site is thought to be mediated by a shift in the conformational equilibrium between an open clamshell and a closed clamshell-like structure of the bilobed ligand-binding domain (LBD). Using single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) and multiparameter fluorescence detection, which allows us to study the conformational states and dynamics in the submillisecond time scale, we show that there are at least three conformational states explored by the LBD: the low FRET, medium FRET, and high FRET states. The distance of the medium and low FRET states corresponds to what has been observed in crystallography structures. We show that the high FRET state, which would represent a more closed clamshell conformation than that observed in the crystal structure, is most likely the state initiating activation, as evidenced by the fact that the fraction of the protein in this state correlates well with the extent of activation. Furthermore, full agonist bound LBDs show faster dynamic motions between the medium and high FRET states, whereas they show slower dynamics when bound to weaker agonists or to antagonists.

N,N-dimethylglycine differentially modulates psychotomimetic and antidepressant-like effects of ketamine in mice

Ketamine, a dissociative anesthetic, produces rapid and sustained antidepressant effects at subanesthtic doses. However, it still inevitably induces psychotomimetic side effects. N,N-dimethylglycine (DMG) is a derivative of the amino acid glycine and is used as a dietary supplement. Recently, DMG has been found acting at glycine binding site of the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). As blockade of NMDARs is one of the main mechanisms responsible for the action of ketamine on central nervous system, DMG might modulate the behavioral responses to ketamine. The present study determined the effects of DMG on the ketamine-induced psychotomimetic, anesthetic and antidepressant-like effects in mice. DMG pretreatment reversed the ketamine-induced locomotor hyperactivity and impairment in the rotarod performance, novel location and novel object recognition tests, and prepulse inhibition. In addition, DMG alone exhibited antidepressant-like effects in the forced swim test and produced additive effects when combined with ketamine. However, DMG did not affect ketamine-induced anesthesia. These results reveal that DMG could antagonize ketamine's psychotomimetic effects, yet produce additive antidepressant-like effects with ketamine, suggesting that DMG might have antipsychotic potential and be suitable as an add-on therapy to ketamine for patients with treatment-resistant depression.

PM432. Evaluation of the extrapyramidal side effects (EPS) liability of NMDA receptor glycine-binding site agonists

PM432. Evaluation of the extrapyramidal side effects (EPS) liability of NMDA receptor glycine-binding site agonists

Xenon-mediated neuroprotection in response to sustained, low-level excitotoxic stress.

Noble gases such as xenon and argon have been reported to provide neuroprotection against acute brain ischemic/anoxic injuries. Herein, we wished to evaluate the protective potential of these two gases under conditions relevant to the pathogenesis of chronic neurodegenerative disorders. For that, we established cultures of neurons typically affected in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology, that is, cortical neurons and basal forebrain cholinergic neurons and exposed them to L-trans-pyrrolidine-2,4-dicarboxylic acid (PDC) to generate sustained, low-level excitotoxic stress. Over a period of 4 days, PDC caused a progressive loss of cortical neurons which was prevented substantially when xenon replaced nitrogen in the cell culture atmosphere. Unlike xenon, argon remained inactive. Xenon acted downstream of the inhibitory and stimulatory effects elicited by PDC on glutamate uptake and efflux, respectively. Neuroprotection by xenon was mimicked by two noncompetitive antagonists of NMDA glutamate receptors, memantine and ketamine. Each of them potentiated xenon-mediated neuroprotection when used at concentrations providing suboptimal rescue to cortical neurons but most surprisingly, no rescue at all. The survival-promoting effects of xenon persisted when NMDA was used instead of PDC to trigger neuronal death, indicating that NMDA receptor antagonism was probably accountable for xenon’s effects. An excess of glycine failed to reverse xenon neuroprotection, thus excluding a competitive interaction of xenon with the glycine-binding site of NMDA receptors. Noticeably, antioxidants such as Trolox and N-acetylcysteine reduced PDC-induced neuronal death but xenon itself lacked free radical-scavenging activity. Cholinergic neurons were also rescued efficaciously by xenon in basal forebrain cultures. Unexpectedly, however, xenon stimulated cholinergic traits and promoted the morphological differentiation of cholinergic neurons in these cultures. Memantine reproduced some of these neurotrophic effects, albeit with less efficacy than xenon. In conclusion, we demonstrate for the first time that xenon may have a therapeutic potential in AD.

Murine startle mutant Nmf11 affects the structural stability of the glycine receptor and increases deactivation.

Key points Hyperekplexia or startle disease is a serious neurological condition affecting newborn children and usually involves dysfunctional glycinergic neurotransmission.Glycine receptors (GlyRs) are major mediators of inhibition in the spinal cord and brainstem.A missense mutation, replacing asparagine (N) with lysine (K), at position 46 in the GlyR α1 subunit induced hyperekplexia following a reduction in the potency of the transmitter glycine; this resulted from a rapid deactivation of the agonist current at mutant GlyRs.These effects of N46K were rescued by mutating a juxtaposed residue, N61 on binding Loop D, suggesting these two asparagines may interact.Asparagine 46 is considered to be important for the structural stability of the subunit interface and glycine binding site, and its mutation represents a new mechanism by which GlyR dysfunction induces startle disease. Dysfunctional glycinergic inhibitory transmission underlies the debilitating neurological condition, hyperekplexia, which is characterised by exaggerated startle reflexes, muscle hypertonia and apnoea. Here we investigated the N46K missense mutation in the GlyR α1 subunit gene found in the ethylnitrosourea (ENU) murine mutant, Nmf11, which causes reduced body size, evoked tremor, seizures, muscle stiffness, and morbidity by postnatal day 21. Introducing the N46K mutation into recombinant GlyR α1 homomeric receptors, expressed in HEK cells, reduced the potencies of glycine, β‐alanine and taurine by 9‐, 6‐ and 3‐fold respectively, and that of the competitive antagonist strychnine by 15‐fold. Replacing N46 with hydrophobic, charged or polar residues revealed that the amide moiety of asparagine was crucial for GlyR activation. Co‐mutating N61, located on a neighbouring β loop to N46, rescued the wild‐type phenotype depending on the amino acid charge. Single‐channel recording identified that burst length for the N46K mutant was reduced and fast agonist application revealed faster glycine deactivation times for the N46K mutant compared with the WT receptor. Overall, these data are consistent with N46 ensuring correct alignment of the α1 subunit interface by interaction with juxtaposed residues to preserve the structural integrity of the glycine binding site. This represents a new mechanism by which GlyR dysfunction induces startle disease.

Effects of Sodium Benzoate Treatment in Combination with An Extinction Training on the Maintenance of Cocaine-Supported Memory.

Activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor can facilitate the extinction of various maladaptive memories. Sodium benzoate (NaB) has been known to enhance a naturally occurring full agonist on the glycine binding site of the NMDA receptor. This study aimed to test whether systemic NaB treatment can affect the extinction of a cocaine-supported memory, the cocaine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP). Following the establishment of the cocaine (10 mg/kg/conditioning × 3)-induced CPP, an extinction protocol, consisting of two consecutive extinction training bouts at an 8-h interval, was used. NaB (500 mg/kg) or an equivalent volume of saline was given immediately following each extinction training bout to test the modulating effect of NaB on the maintenance of cocaine-induced CPP. Moreover, NaB was bilaterally micro-infused into the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) to validate the involvement of this brain region in mediating systemic NaB treatment-produced effect on cocaine-induced CPP. Systemic (500 mg/kg) and intra-mPFC (10 μg/side) NaB treatment significantly decreased subsequent cocaine-induced CPP magnitude, although the NaB treatment or the extinction training alone did not affect such CPP magnitude. It was of importance to note that systemic or intra-mPFC NaB delivery did not affect mouse locomotor activity in the retests. These results, taken together, suggest that NaB treatment in combination with the extinction training may facilitate the extinction of the cocaine-supported memory. Moreover, systemic NaB treatment exerts such effects, at least in part, via its effect in the mPFC.

Synthesis, structure and biological properties of active spirohydantoin derivatives

Spirohidantoins represent an pharmacologically important class of heterocycles since many derivatives have been recognized that display interesting activities against a wide range of biological targets. First synthesis of cycloalkanespiro-5-hydantoins was performed by Bucherer and Lieb 1934 by the reaction of cycloalkanone, potassium cyanide and ammonium-carbonate at reflux in a mixture of ethanol and water. QSAR (Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship) studies showed that a wide range of biological activities of spirohydantoin derivatives strongly depend upon their structure. This paper describes different methods of synthesis of spirohydantoin derivatives, their physico-chemical properties and biological activity. It emphasizes the importance of cycloalkanespiro-5-hydantoins with anticonvulsant, antiproliferative, antipsychotic, antimicrobial and antiinflammatory properties as well as their importance in the treatment of diabetes. Numerous spirohydantoin compounds exhibit physiological activity such as serotonin and fibrinogen antagonist, inhibitors of the glycine binding site of the NMDA receptor also, antagonist of leukocyte cell adhesion, acting as allosteric inhibitors of the protein-protein interactions. Some spirohydantoin derivatives have been identified as antitumor agents. Their activity depends on the substituent presented at position N-3 of the hydantoin ring and increases in order alkene > ester > ether. Besides that, compounds that contain two electron withdrawing groups (e.g. fluorine or chlorine) on the third and fourth position of the phenyl ring are better antitumor agents than compounds with a single electron withdrawing group.

Structural insights into the benzophenanthridines binding to human glycine transporter GlyT1

We previously identified cysteine 475 as a key residue for the inhibitory action of sanguinarine on the human glycine transporter GlyT1c. To define potential benzophenanthridine binding pocket more closely, we created a structural homology model of GlyT1 and also mutated several amino acids in the vicinity of cysteine 475. Even though this area contains the molecular determinants of the glycine and sodium permeation pathways, and several mutations resulted in an inactive transporter, we found that the mutation of a polar aromatic tyrosine 370 to purely aromatic phenylalanine, but not to an aliphatic leucine, significantly increased the sensitivity of GlyT1 to both sanguinarine and chelerythrine. The reduction of sanguinarine to dihydrosanguinarine completely eliminated the alkaloid’s inhibitory potency. Both these results suggest that aromaticity is important in the interaction of benzophenanthridines with GlyT1. Even though tyrosine 370 is part of the conformationaly highly flexible glycine binding site, and is accesible during the transport process from both intra and extracellular sites, the cytoplasmic location of the second alkaloid sensitive residue, cysteine 475, suggests that the benzophenanthridines might attack the area of the GlyT1 intracellular gates.

Synthesis of 3,4-dihydro-2H-1,2-benzothiazine-3-carboxylic acid 1,1-dioxides and their evaluation as ligands for NMDA receptor glycine binding site

A series of 2-substituted 3,4-dihydro-2H-1,2-benzothiazine-3-carboxylic acid 1,1-dioxides were synthesized and evaluated for their affinity to the glycine binding site of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. The binding affinity was determined by the displacement of radioligand [3H]MDL-105,519 from rat cortical membrane preparations. The most attractive structures in the search for prospective NMDA receptor ligands were identified to be 2-arylcarbonylmethyl substituted 3,4-dihydro-2H-1,2-benzothiazine-3-carboxylic acid 1,1-dioxides. It has been demonstrated for the first time that the replacement of NH group in the ligand by sp3 CH2 is tolerated. This finding may pave the way for previously unexplored approaches for designing new ligands of the NMDA receptor.

Glycine transporter GlyT1, but not GlyT2, is expressed in rat dorsal root ganglion—Possible implications for neuropathic pain

Glycinergic inhibitory neurotransmission plays a pivotal role in the development of neuropathic pain. The glycine concentration in the synaptic cleft is controlled by the glycine transporters GlyT1 and GlyT2. GlyT1 is expressed throughout the central nervous system, while GlyT2 is exclusively located in glycinergic neurons. Aim of the present study was to investigate whether GlyTs are also expressed in the peripheral sensory nervous system and whether their expression is modulated in experimental neuropathic pain.Neuropathic pain was induced in male Wistar rats by Chronic Constriction Injury (CCI) and verified by assessment of mechanical allodynia (von Frey method). Expression patterns of GlyTs and the glycine binding subunit NR1 of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) were analyzed by Western blot analysis, PCR and immunohistochemistry.While both GlyT1 and GlyT2 were detected in the spinal cord, only GlyT1, but not GlyT2, was detected in DRG. Immunofluorescence revealed a strictly neuronal localization of GlyT1 and a co-localization of GlyT1 and NR1 in DRG. Compared to sham procedure, spinal cord and DRG expression of GlyT1 was not altered and NR1 was unchanged in DRG 12 days after CCI.GlyT1, but not GlyT2, is expressed in the peripheral sensory nervous system. The co-expression of GlyT1 and NMDA receptors in DRG suggests that GlyT1 regulates glycine concentration at the glycine binding site of the NMDA receptor. Differential regulation of GlyT1 expression in the spinal cord or DRG, however, does not seem to be associated with the development of neuropathic pain.

Glycine plays a crucial role as a co-agonist of NMDA receptors in the neuronal circuit generating body movements in rat fetuses

Neuronal circuits generating fetal movements in mammals are localized in the brainstem and the spinal cord. It has been shown that glycine plays an important role through the strychnine-sensitive glycine receptors in these circuits. However, the role of glycine as the NMDA receptor co-agonist in fetal period is not fully understood. In this study, we examined the contribution of glycine to the perinatal rat spinal circuit generating forelimb movements utilizing isolated brainstem-cervical-spinal-cord preparations. In late embryonic-days-preparations, spontaneous motor bursts related to forelimb movements (forelimb-movement-related bursts; FMRBs) and respiration-related activity were observed. In neonatal preparations, spontaneous FMRBs were not observed but periodic motor bursts resembling the FMRBs could be induced after bath application of strychnine (strychnine-induced motor bursts; SIMBs). Both FMRBs and SIMBs were blocked by either the NMDA receptor antagonist APV or the antagonists of the glycine binding site of NMDA receptors [5,7-dichlorokynurenic acid (DCKA) or L-689560]. Furthermore, these motor bursts were facilitated by the glycine uptake blocker sarcosine. This effect of sarcosine was blocked by DCKA. The findings indicate that glycine plays a crucial role as a NMDA receptor co-agonist in generating spontaneous fetal motor activity before functioning as a classical inhibitory neurotransmitter in suppressing the fetal neuronal circuits.

The inimitable kynurenic acid: the roles of different ionotropic receptors in the action of kynurenic acid at a spinal level.

Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is a neuroactive metabolite that interacts with NMDA, AMPA/kainate and alpha 7 nicotinic receptors. The goal of this study was to clarify the roles of these receptors in the action of KYNA at a spinal level by using highly specific receptor antagonists alone or in triple combinations. Chronic osteoarthritis-like joint pain was induced with monosodium-iodoacetate in male Wistar rats. Mechanical allodynia and motor function were quantified. In the first series we determined the dose-response and time course effects of intrathecally administered KYNA (10-100 μg), D-(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (AP5; an NMDA receptor antagonist; 10-200 μg), methyllycaconitine (MLA; an alpha 7 nicotinic receptor antagonist; 100-200 μg) and 2,3-dioxo-6-nitro-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrobenzoquinoxaline-7-sulfonamide (NBQX; an AMPA/kainate receptor antagonist; 1-20 μg). In the second series, four different triple combinations of MLA, AP5 and NBQX were investigated. Intrathecal administration of KYNA caused a dose-dependent motor impairment and antinociception. The highly specific NMDA receptor antagonist AP5 caused a motor impairment and antinociception with lower potency. High doses of NBQX resulted in significant antinociception with a slight motor impairment, while only the highest dose of MLA gave rise to significant antinociception with a slight motor impairment. After the coadministration of these ligands as combinations, no potentiation was observed. It may be supposed that the effects of KYNA are primarily due to the inhibition of NMDA receptors at both glycine and phencyclidine (PCP) binding sites, and not to the interactions at the different ionotropic receptors, but the mechanisms behind its high bio-efficiency are still unknown.

Molecular dynamics study-based mechanism of nefiracetam-induced NMDA receptor potentiation

Plastic changes in the brain required for memory formation and long-term learning are dependent on N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor signaling. Nefiracetam reportedly boosts NMDA receptor functions as a basis for its nootropic properties. Previous studies suggest that nefiracetam potentiates the NMDA receptor activation, as a more potent co-agonist for glycine binding site than glycine, though the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, using BSP-SLIM method, a novel binding site within the core of spiral β-strands-1-5 of LBD-GLUN1 has been predicted in glycine-bound GLUN1 conformation in addition to the glycine pocket in Apo-GLUN1. Within the core of spiral β-strands-1-5 of LBD-GLUN1 pocket, all-atom molecular dynamics simulation revealed that nefiracetam disrupts Arg523-glycine-Asp732 interaction resulting in open GLUN1 conformation and ultimate diffusion of glycine out of the clamshell cleft. Open GLUN1 conformation coerces other intra-chain domains and proximal inter-chain domains to sample inactivate conformations resulting in closure of the transmembrane gate via a novel gauche trap on threonine 647 (chi-1 dihedral (χ1)=−45° instead of +45°). Docking of nefiracetam into the glycine pocket reversed the gauche trap and meditates partial opening of the TMD gate within a time-scale of 100ns as observed in glycine-only state. All these results suggest that nefiracetam can favorably complete with glycine for GLUN1-LBD in a two-step process, first by binding to a novel site of GLUN1-LBD-NMDA receptor followed by disruption of glycine-binding dynamics then replacing glycine in the GLUN1-LBD cleft.

Glutamate-mediated upregulation of the multidrug resistance protein 2 in porcine and human brain capillaries.

As a member of the multidrug-resistance associated protein (MRP) family, MRP2 affects the brain entry of different endogenous and exogenous compounds. Considering the role of this transporter at the blood-brain barrier, the regulation is of particular interest. However, there is limited knowledge regarding the factors that regulate MRP2 in neurologic disease states. Thus, we addressed the hypothesis that MRP2 might be affected by a glutamate-induced signaling pathway that we previously identified as one key mechanism in the regulation of P-glycoprotein. Studies in isolated porcine brain capillaries confirmed that glutamate and N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) exposure upregulates expression and function of MPR2. The involvement of the NMDA receptor was further suggested by the fact that the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 [(5S,10R)-(+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine], as well as the NMDA receptor glycine binding site antagonist L-701,324 [7-chloro-4-hydroxy-3-(3-phenoxy)phenyl-2(1H)-quinolinone], prevented the impact of glutamate. A role of cyclooxygenase-2 was indicated by coincubation with the cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor celecoxib and the cyclooxygenase-1/-2 inhibitor indomethacin, which both efficaciously abolished a glutamate-induced upregulation of MRP2. Translational studies in human capillaries from surgical specimen demonstrated a relevant MRP2 efflux function and indicated an effect of glutamate exposure as well as its prevention by cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition. Taken together the findings provide first evidence for a role of a glutamate-induced NMDA receptor/cyclooxygenase-2 signaling pathway in the regulation of MRP2 expression and function. The response to excessive glutamate concentrations might contribute to overexpression of MRP2, which has been reported in neurologic diseases including epilepsy. The overexpression might have implications for brain access of various compounds including therapeutic drugs.