Bilingual Learners Research Articles

Language-dependent knowledge acquisition

Within the research on bilingual learning, first studies have revealed that content learned in one language is retrieved more slowly when participants have to switch language from instruction to testing (i.e., language-switching costs, LSC). These costs are attributed to language-dependent knowledge representations. However, the cognitive mechanisms underlying LSC are still largely unknown. We investigated these mechanisms by using strategy as well as translation self-reports and by analysing oscillatory parameters in the electroencephalogram (EEG). Thirty-six university students learned arithmetic facts of three different operations over four days either in English or in German. Afterwards, they were tested in both languages with concurrent assessments of self-reports and electrophysiological activity. As expected, LSC in response latencies were observed in all arithmetic tasks. More importantly, analyses of self-reports and EEG revealed that both translation processes and calculation procedures contribute to LSC, with translation processes being the main cognitive mechanism underlying LSC. These results corroborate previous findings of language-dependent knowledge representations in arithmetic fact learning and shed new light on the cognitive mechanisms underlying LSC and possible educational consequences.

Morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge in monolingual and bilingual learners: A meta-analysis

Morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge in monolingual and bilingual learners: A meta-analysis

Code choice and translanguaging in Spanish classroom tasks

AbstractResearch show that bilingual learners move naturally between their languages to learn; however, this practice is not welcomed in many second/foreign language classrooms given the belief that first language (L1) use negatively affects second language (L2) development, despite much empirical evidence to the contrary. Moreover, translanguaging practices calling for the use of full linguistic repertories can also benefit L2 learning, especially during collaborative tasks. It is thus important to explore translanguaging practices in classroom contexts. This study investigates code choice and translanguaging within collaborative oral tasks by focusing on the way college‐level, Spanish language learners strategically alternate between languages to sustain and enhance their interactions. In particular, the positive role of L1 use during the pretask phase and its relation to L2 use during the task phase are examined.

EXPLORING THE PLIGHT OF THE HONEYBEE: USING DATA SENSORS AND CODAP TO SUPPORT EMERGING BILINGUAL LEARNERS IN REASONING ABOUT BIG STATISTICAL IDEAS

Children require access to high-quality statistics education to develop the skills to participate in a technological and data-reliant workforce. This study consisted of a five-lesson integrated STEM unit designed to develop the statistical literacy of 62 6th-grade (11–12 years old) emerging bilingual (EB) learners. Learning was situated in the study of the honeybee, utilising innovative technologies to gather data and support data visualisation and analysis. Lesson study was used to design lessons targeting understandings of distribution, centre, variability, data comparison, informal measures of association and informal inference. This paper reports on the data comparison lesson. It reveals the influential role of digital technologies in highlighting the relevance of statistics in understanding societal issues and developing students’ statistical agency. This qualitative study also revealed that the development of statistical understanding was supported by the use of inclusive pedagogies guided by the principles of universal design and the incorporation of data analysis technologies.

Bilingual learning motivation and engagement among students in Chinese-English bilingual education programmes in Mainland China: competing or coexistent?

ABSTRACT Learning motivation and engagement are critical factors influencing language proficiency, but previous research has primarily focused on these aspects from a monolingual perspective. The present study adopted a bilingual lens to simultaneously examine motivation and engagement in learning both Chinese and English among students in Chinese-English bilingual education programmes at non-traditional international schools in Mainland China. Based on the data from 328 fourth and fifth graders, the study found a positive correlation between Chinese and English learning motivation and engagement, with no significant differences between the two languages across most dimensions, except higher utility in English learning. To further explore the individual differences, Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) identified four distinct profiles: Low-bilingual-motivation-and-engagement, Chinese-focused learners, English-focused learners, and High-bilingual-motivation-and-engagement. Grade and gender significantly influenced bilingual learning dynamics, with students’ interest in both languages decreasing and Chinese time investment declining with grade level, while girls showed an advantage in perceiving the utility of both languages and Chinese learning time investment. However, grade and gender did not affect profile memberships. This study contributes to both theory and practice by enhancing our understanding of bilingual learning processes and informing targeted educational strategies to support balanced bilingual development.

A Low-Tech Assistive Tool for Inclusion of Persons with Hearing Impairments in Fiji

The rapid advancements in 21st-century technology have significantly driven the development of assistive tools, which serve as transformative aids for individuals with disabilities and emerging bilingual learners. Despite the growing recognition of technology`s potential in education, equitable access to these interventions for individuals with special needs remains a pressing concern, particularly in developing countries. This study examines the challenges faced by persons who are deaf or hard of hearing in Fiji and introduces a low-tech assistive device specifically designed to address these barriers. Utilizing a two-phased survey methodology, the research explores the experiences and perceptions of individuals with hearing impairments regarding their inclusion in public spaces, government services, entertainment, and social media platforms. The second phase evaluates the efficacy of an ICT-based Sign Language Tool, developed to assist parents and educators in consistently learning and applying universal sign language. The findings reveal substantial obstacles faced by persons with hearing impairments in accessing public services, highlighting the need for tailored interventions. The study underscores the potential of simple, cost-effective, low-tech solutions to alleviate societal barriers and enhance inclusion. This baseline research lays the groundwork for the development and adaptation of targeted assistive technologies to support the inclusion of persons with disabilities in Fiji, with prospects for broader application across the South Pacific region.

Toward pedagogías entrenzadas: Braiding critical and asset‐based pedagogies of sciences, languages, and cultural responsiveness

AbstractRecent reforms in science education shift the focus of instruction to supporting students' sensemaking about phenomena. At the same time, discussions of equity in science education have become more common and more contested. For emergent bilingual (EB) learners, there is growing consensus that these trends together imply valuing diverse linguistic and cultural resources that students draw upon to make sense of the world. However, asset‐based pedagogies often do not attend to the role of oppression and the co‐construction of linguistic and racial marginalization. Furthermore, culturally responsive pedagogies push beyond valuing student assets to challenge the end goals of education, emphasizing the development of critical consciousness. Through this case study of one thematic unit within a transitional bilingual physical science class, this study puts forth pedagogías entrenzadas as a purposeful braiding of asset and critical pedagogies that attend to science, language, and cultural responsiveness. The study took place in a Title I school in the suburbs of a large midwestern city where the majority of students are from Latin American immigrant families. Pedagogías entrenzadas are articulated through the analysis of classroom episodes that attended to language, science, and cultural responsiveness in combination. By attending to these three facets in braided ways, the teacher created ruptures in systems that structurally exclude EB students. We present three classroom episodes in conjunction with additional evidence from a larger data set to demonstrate the ways pedagogías entrenzadas created spaces where (1) generative themes and words created opportunities for holistic sensemaking; (2) there were opportunities to consider and critique language and science; and (3) heterogeneity in linguistic, cultural, and academic resources was upheld and valued. The implications of this pedagogical work extended outside of the classroom, where the teacher successfully advocated with colleagues for the creation of an asset‐based bilingual science program.

Analysis of Teachers' Professional Competence in Developing Bilingual Learning Programmes at Muhammadiyah 1 Purwodadi Elementary School

Bilingual learning is a learning program that uses English as an international language, as the language of instruction in the learning process, in addition to Indonesian. The purpose of this study was to determine how the professional competence of teachers in the Bilingual Learning Programme at Muhammadiyah 1 Purwodadi Elementary School. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative research. Data collection techniques using observation, interviews, and documentation. The data analysis used is data collection, data reduction, data presentation, and drawing conclusions. The results showed that the professional competence of teachers at Muhammadiyah 1 Purwodadi Elementary School has been implemented optimally but not maximally. In addition, the obstacles to the development of the bilingual program faced by bilingual teachers at Muhammadiyah Purwodadi Elementary School are the lack of availability of adequate facilities and infrastructure for the learning process, the different characters of students, teachers who have not mastered class administration, and parents who are sometimes difficult to communicate with. However, this can be overcome with several solutions, namely teachers developing learning media, maximizing materials around the school as learning media, as well as seminars or training for teachers. Keywords: Bilingual, Professionalism Competence, Elementary School

The Educational Psychology Consultation and assessment role with bilingual learners through the lens of Gaelicmedium Education service delivery

This article is a literature review and reflection on how an English-speaking Educational Psychologist (EP) without Gaelic language approached the challenge of identifying and supporting learners’ Additional Support Needs (ASN) in Gaelic-medium Education (GME) settings. Literature regarding bilingual learning and language acquisition is reviewed and discussed in the context of GME, identifying factors to consider primarily in Consultation and interpreting assessment information including orthography, distributed vocabulary, code-switching, and working memory. Implications for EP practice are considered, including the importance of knowing the evidence base regarding bilingual children and young people with ASN when facilitating discussions to support families and professionals regarding a suitable education and support for the child or young person. The importance of providing equitable service to bilingual learners and the challenges in providing this are discussed.

The power of subjectivity in CLIL assessment: evidence of cognitive/emotional dissonance

ABSTRACT Since CLIL assessment is not immune to subjectivity, this exploratory study seeks to understand and make sense of the emerging cognitive/emotional dissonance episodes (confluence of contradictory thoughts and conflicting emotions) resulting from current CLIL assessment practices from content teachers’ perspective. Based on a narrative qualitative research design, a thematic content analysis was employed for the qualitative data collected through open-ended questions. Findings indeed provided empirical evidence of cognitive/emotional dissonance episodes faced by CLIL teachers when assessing and grading their learners’ academic achievement. Among the main reasons behind such cognitive/emotional dissonance expressions are the complexity of content and language integration and the mediating role of the target language in content acquisition, which may constrain students’ ability to demonstrate or express their actual content subject knowledge, as evidenced by the concerns, fears, self-doubts, dilemmas, uncertainties, contradictions, insecurities, pressures and emotional vulnerability faced by CLIL teachers in assessing and grading bilingual learners’ academic achievement. Findings also suggest the need to consider such dissonance episodes in their complex and dynamic interactions with the surrounding environment. The main implication that emerges from the study is that CLIL teacher education must mediate and encourage reflective practice, helping pre- and in-service teachers manage such cognitive/emotional challenges appropriately.

Dual Credit Completion in Texas from 2019–2021: An Examination of the COVID-19 Years

This study investigates the dual credit (DC) college readiness indicator among secondary students in Texas during 2019–2021 COVID-19. Utilizing publicly available administrative data from the Texas Education Agency and a hierarchical linear model, the paper identifies changes in Texas school districts’ college readiness DC course completion rates across demographic and geographic factors. Findings indicated a steadiness in course participation and an increase in successful completion throughout the years. Compared to White students, students who are African American, Asian American, or low socioeconomic students showed lower success. However, emergent bilingual learners and students who are Latine showed no significant difference. Using the city as the normed geographic location, rural and towns fared better than their suburban peers. As DC is a primary implementation method for gifted-identified students in Texas high schools, study results demonstrate that despite DC course completion remaining stable, disparities among gifted-identified students of color and marginalized groups exist.

Exploring cross-language transfer among children in multilingual education: a longitudinal study in Luxembourg

ABSTRACT This longitudinal study explores cross-language transfer among children attending multilingual public schools in Luxembourg, where Luxembourgish is the instruction language in preschool and German the language of instruction in elementary school. Following 132 children from preschool (age 5) to grade 2 (age 7), annual assessments were conducted to evaluate their vocabulary proficiency in both Luxembourgish and German. Bilingual learners were systematically classified based on theoretically motivated criteria, encompassing home language background and Luxembourgish language proficiency. Longitudinal analyses were carried out employing linear mixed models and multigroup path modeling, targeting both monolinguals and various groups of bilingual learners. The results provide robust support for the presence of cross-language transfer between Luxembourgish and German. Notably, Luxembourgish vocabulary proficiency in preschool emerged as a significant predictor of subsequent German proficiency for both monolingual and bilingual learners. Furthermore, bilingual learners with lower Luxembourgish vocabulary in preschool exhibited compromised German vocabulary in elementary school. These findings underscore the importance of cross-language transfer theories and their implications for multilingual education practices in Luxembourg.

Becoming bilingual when access to the minority language may be compromised

Between September and December 2023, Babylonia collected questions from parents regarding their children's language development. This article aims to answer the following questions: We want our daughter to be fully bilingual - with such a high dominion of each language that people question whether she speaks any other language at all. Both my husband and I speak Spanish and English in this way, having grown up in Mexico going to an English-speaking school and then moving to the US for university and the rest of our adult lives. The actual question: how can we recreate this for our daughter, knowing that she is in the US and will not be immersed in Spanish the way we were when growing up. Plus finding Spanish-speaking child care is hard—- is two days on the weekend and evenings in Spanish enough to have her be bilingual? What would you recommend we do so that we set her up for success in both languages? She is 8 months today. I am a non-heritage speaker of another language (Spanish). I can speak fluidly but still make errors that native speakers do not make. My husband and I would like our daughter - currently 2 months old - to be fluent in the second language (Spanish) and plan to enroll her in a bilingual learning environment once she is old enough. In the meantime we join a once per week bilingual storytime, and try to read her stories in Spanish at home. My question is: for language exposure & acquisition, is it better for me to try to speak Spanish to her at home if my Spanish has errors, or just wait, stick to small exposures for now, and let her learning come primarily once she has started daycare/preschool? [Summary generated by Poe - we refer the reader to the full article in PDF format for a complete answer] This article discusses the challenges of bilingual development in children particularly in contexts where access to a minority language, such as Spanish in an English majority context, may be compromised. Interaction with fluent speakers is essential for language learning. It is beneficial for parents to speak the minority language at home and create an environment in which its use feels natural. Regular exposure, even if limited, supports the development of language skills, and exposure to varied contexts and diverse speakers is encouraged. The author recommends access to the minority language through interactions with other adults and children who speak that language, and continued use of this language even once the child starts school. Additionally, enrolling the child in a bilingual school or a school where the minority language is used as a medium of instruction can be beneficial. Finally, she notes thatparents play a key role in creating a rich language environment and promoting a positive language learning experience. In summary, the author recommends that parents: Use the minority language at home and create an environment in which it is natural for the child to use it. Expose the child to other adults and children who speak the minority language. Continue to use and expose the child to the minority language once they start school. Consider enrolling the child in a bilingual school or a school where the minority language is used as a medium of instruction. Don't give up, as there may be occasional ups and downs in the child's uptake of the language.

Frequency, redundancy, and context in bilingual acquisition.

We report findings from a corpus-based investigation of three young children growing up in German-English bilingual environments (M = 3;0, Range = 2;3-3;11). Based on 2,146,179 single words and two-word combinations in naturalistic child speech (CS) and child-directed speech (CDS), we assessed the degree to which the frequency distribution of CDS predicted CS usage over time, and systematically identified CS that was over- or underrepresented in the corpus with respect to matched CDS baselines. Results showed that CDS explained 61% of the variance in CS single-word use and 19.3% of the variance in two-word combinations. Furthermore, the bilingual nature of the over or -underrepresented CS was partially attributable to factors beyond the corpus statistics, namely individual differences between children in their bilingual learning environment. In two out of the three children, overrepresented two-word combinations contained higher levels of syntactic slot redundancy than underrepresented CS. These results are discussed with respect to the role that redundancy plays in producing semiformulaic slot-and-frame patterns in CS.

Starting small: Engaging young learners with literacy through multilingual storytelling

In Australian schools, approximately 20% of young children are emergent bilinguals, who are simultaneously developing their home languages while learning through English. While many teachers recognise the benefits of multilingual teaching approaches in culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms, there remains a significant level of uncertainty about how to enact them. These approaches depend heavily on teachers’ ability to leverage young learners’ cultural and linguistic funds of knowledge, as well as to apply pedagogies that engage the full range of their linguistic abilities. To effectively develop these strategies, many teachers require additional support. This paper presents a study in which researchers collaborated with a classroom teacher to initiate a multilingual storytelling project aimed at children aged six to seven. The objective was to explore the potential of multilingual storytelling to engage young emergent bilingual learners in early reading and writing activities. Our findings indicate that this pedagogical approach, rooted in the principles of translanguaging, significantly enhanced the students' engagement with literacy. By validating their home languages and cultural identities, the project provided strong support for their oral language development, demonstrating the effectiveness of integrating multilingual practices in the foundational years of education.

Bilingual Education and Cognitive Development: A Comparative Analysis of Early vs. Late Bilingual Learners

This study investigates the cognitive developmental differences between early and late bilingual learners, focusing on cognitive flexibility, memory, and executive functions. Early bilinguals, defined as individuals who acquire two languages before the age of five, demonstrated superior cognitive flexibility, faster information processing, and enhanced executive functions compared to late bilinguals, who began learning a second language after the age of ten. Despite certain cognitive challenges faced by late bilinguals, such as slower processing speed and lower cognitive flexibility, they exhibited stronger application of learning strategies, such as rehearsal and metacognitive techniques, to overcome these challenges. The study suggests that both early and late bilingual learners benefit from targeted educational strategies: fostering cognitive flexibility for early bilinguals and supporting memory and learning strategies for late bilinguals. The findings have significant implications for bilingual education and future research on the long-term effects of bilingualism on cognitive development.

Exploring Enjoyment and Flow among Monolingual and Bilingual Learners of English

Emotions play a prominent role in foreign language learning, with positive emotions, such as enjoyment, gaining significant attention in recent years. Enjoyment has been identified as a strong predictor of flow experiences as learners progress to more advanced levels in their language studies (Dewaele and MacIntyre 2022). This study aims to explore the factors that trigger enjoyment, which also serve as components of flow as originally defined by Csikszentmihályi (1975). Adopting a qualitative approach within the framework of positive psychology and flow theory, we empirically examined the antecedent conditions of flow in an online sample of 216 language learners from three different settings: two monolingual contexts (Hungary and Poland) and one bilingual context (Transylvania, Romania). We investigated whether there are differences in the experiences of enjoyment and flow between monolingual and bilingual students. Data were collected through online surveys where participants recounted memorable and enjoyable English language learning experiences. Using content analysis, we explored the close connection between enjoyment and flow in learners’ narratives. We described patterns of flow components, which further emphasize the role of enjoyment in language learning. The findings, illustrated by participants’ reports, highlight factors that align with flow states, including a sense of complete involvement in tasks, intense focus, joy, loss of sense of time/place, and spontaneous connection with peers and teachers. The results suggest that while enhanced enjoyment and flow are significant in foreign language learning, they are not necessarily linked to being a bilingual language learner.

Inclusive learning innovation with mobile-based bilingual interactive games for slow learner students

This Community Service Program developed a mobile-based bilingual interactive game called "Safari Kingdom" for slow learner students in inclusive education. The purpose of this service is to improve the language and cognitive skills of slow-learner students in an inclusive educational environment. The method used is CBPR (Community-Based Participatory Research) which develops games in collaboration with teachers, students, and lecturers in designing innovative learning media that supports students' language and cognitive skills. The development process includes prototyping, initial trials, and ongoing evaluation with feedback from stakeholders. The results of the implementation show that the use of this game has a positive impact on the understanding of slow-learner students in bilingual learning, increase learning motivation, and assists teachers in integrating technology into teaching methods. The average quiz score of students increased from 43.6 in conventional learning to 84.6 after using the game. A questionnaire of teachers and guardians of students revealed that 90 percent agreed that the use of games increased learning motivation, while 95 percent supported the effectiveness of mobile game-based learning. The program successfully integrates technology into more inclusive and interactive teaching methods.

Bilingual Learning for Young Children

This study examines the impact of immersion education on the native language (L1) proficiency of adolescent bilingual learners. Immersion education, where most academic instruction is provided in a second language (L2), aims to foster bilingualism while achieving academic competence. However, there are concerns about the effect of this educational model on learners' L1 development, particularly during adolescencea critical period for cognitive and academic language growth. Drawing from existing research on bilingualism and immersion education, this paper explores the balance between L2 acquisition and L1 maintenance. It emphasizes the role of home language support, school environment, and broader sociocultural contexts in shaping language outcomes. The findings suggest that while immersion programs are effective in promoting L2 proficiency, they may lead to a decline in L1 academic skills unless deliberate efforts are made to support L1 development. Key factors influencing L1 maintenance include the amount of L1 exposure, parental and community support, societal attitudes towards bilingualism, and specific classroom practices that integrate L1 use. This study underscores the importance of balanced bilingualism, where both L1 and L2 are valued, and provides practical implications for educators and policymakers to create supportive environments for adolescent bilingual learners.

The relationships between balanced-bilingual proficiency, executive function, and rational thinking: a dissociative finding

ABSTRACT The cognitive advantages of bilingualism have accumulated significant support in various domains, and executive function is suggested to be one of their operative mechanisms. However, empirical evidence of the relationships among bilingualism, executive function, and rational thinking is still lacking. The present study extends this understanding. With a refined operational definition of bilingualism and by controlling for possible confounding variables, we recruited 114 university participants to perform a balanced bilingual proficiency task; a modified Simon executive function (EF) task (to assess inhibition and updating components of EFs); a syllogism task; a critical thinking test; and measures of intelligence, socioeconomic status (SES), and the openness-to-experience personality trait. The results showed that balanced bilingual proficiency positively and robustly predicted participants’ performance in syllogism and critical thinking tasks after we controlled for other variables. The relationships between EF components and rational thinking showed a dissociative result: Inhibition and updating ability contributed to syllogistic and critical thinking differently. These results shed further light on the educational application needs of bilingual learning and concluded in a discussion of future investigations of the theoretical accounts and mechanisms of bilingual advantages.