Bilingual Education Policy Research Articles

Digital technology use and early reading abilities among bilingual children in Singapore

Singapore has launched a bilingual education policy nationwide, which leads to three main home language environments amongst Chinese families, namely, Chinese dominant, Chinese-English bilingual families and English dominant families. However, little is known about the development of early reading abilities among Singapore children from these family backgrounds. Moreover, against the backdrop of technological advances in the digital age, how the use of digital technology may affect the development of early reading abilities remains understudied. In this study, 225 7-year-old Chinese Singaporean children with different home language environments were recruited from mainstream primary schools in Singapore to complete the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study reading comprehension tests and questionnaires. Evidence revealed that children’s reading ability and digital technology use in Chinese varied across home language environments. Also, the use of digital technology in both English and Chinese positively predicted the reading abilities in both languages respectively for children from English dominant families. The results provide interesting insights into the role of bilingualism and digital technology use in the development of early reading abilities. In view of the results, we also discuss and put forward suggestions on online reading education policy.

Prospects and Challenges of Dynamic Bilingual Education in the Light of Pakistan’s Language Policy

This research investigates challenges and prospects of the dynamic, bilingual education in the light of Pakistan’s language policy. It guides language policymakers to adopt the dynamic, bilingual policy in Pakistan’s education system. However, the researcher revealed that most of the participants willingly favored and practiced the dynamic model of bilingual instruction, but there is no formal policy guide for them. The employment of this education model is valid and feasible in both theory and practice. Besides, readers and policymakers through this research paper would come to know that the dynamic, bilingual education improves students’ socio-cognitive, linguistic performance and functional biliteracy through translanguaging and multimodalities. The issue of monoglossic separation of languages in Pakistan is yet to be solved. Furthermore, the researcher used qualitative, empirical methodology to do analysis and employed open-ended questionnaires to collect data. The researcher used purposive sampling to collect data from sixteen respondents. Additionally, findings show that the subtractive language policy, linguistic politics, the power elite’s monolingualism, parents’ obsession with English, and students’ negative attitudes are challenges to the dynamic, bilingual education. In contrast, Pakistan’s multi-lingual reality along with translingual practices, the use of multimodalities, students’ multi-lingual repertoire, functional biliteracy, and transcultural interaction are some of the prospects of the dynamic, bilingual education policy in Pakistan. Thus, there are both challenges and prospects of the dynamic, bilingual education policy in Pakistan.

Toward ELF-Informed Bilingual Education in Taiwan: Addressing Incongruity Between Policy and Practice

In 2018, Taiwan’s Ministry of Education (MOE) announced the national bilingual education (BE) policy and its commitment toward implementing full-scale bilingualization in the national education system. Though the details for putting the policy into practice at local contexts across the nation are still under discussion, small-scale experiments had been conducted by individual schools in different cities prior to the MOE announcement. One unique case was the CLIL pilot program fully organized and supported by Tainan City government, launched 1 year ahead of the national policy. This paper discusses the experience in Tainan CLIL program from three aspects: the medium of instruction, foreign teacher recruitment, and the needs of bilingual teacher education. The findings will help inform the national policy as MOE formulates more specific implementation guidelines. In comparing the Tainan pilot experience and MOE’s policy, the study will show that the MOE policy was influenced by the traditional English as a native language (ENL) ideologies, even though in many parts of the world educators have adopted the English as a lingua franca (ELF) framework in curriculum design. A BE program with ELF perspectives will not only integrate multicultural awareness in curriculum design, but also value teachers’ and students’ multilingual resources in teaching and learning in the classroom. An ELF-informed BE policy will view local teachers’ empowerment as a crucial step to successful CLIL implementation. In light of our findings, the MOE’s bilingual education policies should be examined and updated with awareness of the ELF phenomenon and the experience of Tainan’s CLIL pilot program

English language in Brunei: Use, policy, and status in education – A review

This paper explores the literature on the status of the English language in Negara Brunei Darussalam, particularly in education. The review encompasses a total of 103 sources, including 44 journal articles, 27 book chapters, 15 books, and 17 other items (institution/organisation websites and reports, government documents, newspaper articles, and conference presentations), published between 1985 and 2020, with at least 70 sources published in the last decade. The author summarises findings from research in key areas in the Bruneian context including bilingual education, linguistic diversity, the status of English, educational policies, educational divides, and challenges to the student experience, particularly in higher education in the bilingual setting. The author found that: i) while there are concerns over the impact of English on the Malay language and on indigenous languages in the Sultanate, and apprehension around an educational divide, the majority of attitudes appear to be very positive about the use of English in Brunei, including in education; ii) the bilingual education policy has evolved over time, and now places an emphasis on English as a key competency for the 21st century; iii) the student experience in the bilingual context is a particularly under-researched area. Staff working in tertiary education can always benefit from further insights into different aspects of learning, teaching, and content delivery, which may be applicable in many settings. The paper concludes with recommendations for further research in Brunei.

Translation, rewriting and formation of Singapore’s bilingual education policy

Abstract Individuals inevitably have their own perception of Singapore’s bilingual education policy, especially those who experienced its formation and history from the pre-independence days of the 1950s to the 1980s. The book, My Lifelong Challenge: Singapore’s Bilingual Journey by Lee Kuan Yew, the founding Prime Minister of Singapore, provides much information and insights into this part of history. Through the comparison of the English and Chinese editions, this paper discusses the poetics, patronage and ideological differences related to the reasons for the translation and rewriting by Lee Kuan Yew of the Chinese edition. It suggests that Lee Kuan Yew had different intentions for the English and Chinese editions in relation to the respective readerships; as regards the English readership, the author intends the readers to gain knowledge of the historical background and to emphasize to them the importance of Mother Tongue; as regards the Chinese readership, he seeks to address any misunderstandings and misgivings towards the government that this group of readers may have and to gain their support for the bilingual policy.

Literacy and Child Development in a Contemporary African Society

AbstractIn this article, I propose a theoretical framework for understanding relations between literacy and child development: The literacy practices of a community map the cognitive affordances of script onto particular speech varieties in a sociocultural system. This leads to developmental goals and optimizing technologies situated in enabling institutional contexts. In many parts of Africa, institutionalized public basic schooling historically was imposed by Christian missionaries and sustained by colonial administration. Contemporary systems remain deeply infused with Western cultural hegemony. Most research on children’s literacy in Zambia has focused on individual literacy as a set of measurable competencies that can be assessed independently of context, construing language variety or instructional input as extraneous variables. A more integrated focus on literacy as a socially distributed practice in the context of a multilingual African society highlights cooperative learning and flexible communication across language boundaries. I suggest implications for bilingual education policy and planning for progressive social change.

Gender Differences in Learning English as a Second Language among Primary Students in Brunei Darussalam

English is a major medium for learning in the Bruneian school system and is an important feature of Brunei’s bilingual education policy. There is a concern that students in Brunei have low literacy levels and experience language difficulties in the classroom. Bruneian students, who are second language learners of English encounter problems in communicating in the language due to lack of input at home and the school environment. Through qualitative interviews with young children, gender differences were found in language learning as early as the primary schools. Girls were keen to participate in activities which increased their literacy skills than boys.

Eye on the Future: Diverse Family Language Policy in Three Singaporean Malay Homes with Preschool Children

Singapore’s bilingual education policy mandates children study English and a mother-tongue in school. To understand the language shift from Malay to English in Malay homes from the perspective of family language policy, this paper reports on the diverse language ideologies and practices of three Singaporean Malay mothers of preschool children. The in-depth interviews were conducted in 2013- 2014 and transcribed verbatim by a bilingual English-Malay transcriptionist. Although the mothers were of similar ethnic, religious, and socioeconomic backgrounds, their home language practices were distinctly different. Their language practices reflected the beliefs, values, and feelings they ascribed to Malay, English, and Mandarin, languages their preschool-age children were exposed to as well as their ideas about language development and bilingualism in Singapore. While subscribing to some state bilingual education policy assumptions, mothers actively formed different family language policies to resist the state bilingual policy, shield their children from academic pressure, and carve out a unique Malay identity. Major forces such as Malay as a minority, language and social mobility, and English ownership, in addition to state bilingual policy and education system, were discussed in connection to mothers’ family language policy.

A Policy History of Leadership Dilemmas In English Learner Education

ABSTRACTThis commentary situates the articles in this special issue in a historical perspective. It examines changes in civil rights law, bilingual education policy, and standards-based reform over time, and discusses how these changes shape current leadership dilemmas focused on the segregation and integration of English learners in U.S. schools.

The Role of Bilingual Education Policy in Inheritance of Endangered Language in the Tujia Ethnic Minority Area of China

The Role of Bilingual Education Policy in Inheritance of Endangered Language in the Tujia Ethnic Minority Area of China

Preparing for the Challenges of a Bilingual Teacher in Teaching English as a Foreign/Second Language

Taiwan's bilingual education policy started in 2018, and its implementation is expected to commence in 2022. This paper reviews Taiwan's bilingual policy and some measures to address the need for such reform. Discussions on the Ministry of Education's plans in using the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach, the Teach English in English (TEIE), and the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) are tackled in the presentation. Recommendations on how to narrow gaps, provide support teachers, and improve the implementation of the bilingual policy are covered in this paper. Moreover, a model called, Bilingual and CLIL teacher created by the author explains the challenges and preparations of a non-native English speaker who teaches English as a foreign language or as a second language. It is a comprehensive model that can be used by other researchers in addressing the challenges and preparations needed before the implementation of any educational reforms.

Deaf children, humor and education policy

Deaf children need true inclusion to learn, entailing consistent, pervasive use of visual-learning techniques (Hauser et al. 2010). This is achieved via bilingual education policies that permit teachers to engage in deaf pedagogy using sign language (Quadros and Stumpf in press and Quadros 2018). Educational policies advocating inclusion via an interpreter in the mainstreamed classroom create the “illusion of inclusion” (Glickman 2003). We argue that, in either case, humor can aid inclusion. Understanding humor is a developmental ability, related to cognitive, social, linguistic, and metalinguistic competence. Additionally, learning how humor is understood and expressed contributes to language mastery (Huss 2008; Garner 2006). However, we find little discussion of humor in deaf education (but see Sanders 1986; Luckner and Yarger 1997; and Ashton et al. 2012). We contend that deaf students have the right to learn through humor and play, throughout school. Educational policies should reflect that. Educators understand that games are important for learning at any age, and especially for the very young where play is learning, and learning is play. We offer examples of how to modify common classroom activities to extend their effectiveness to deaf children and enhance their effectiveness with hearing children, from dance making mathematical concepts visually apparent, through sign language play encouraging creativity, to mime and theatre techniques illustrating geological facts.

Bilingual Educational Policy in Georgia: Can it Benefit the Process of Integration of Society?

This article reviews the educational policy for the integration of society in Georgia. It is an analytical research paper on the current situation of ethnic minority education in Georgia. The problems and opportunities of bilingual education policy are analysed in the article. The content analysis research method was utilised in the study. The author argues that bilingual education is a crucial tool for the integration of Georgian society; however, local control, involvement, and context are crucial in the implementation of a national bilingual educational programme. The changes on the political, institutional and pedagogical levels of bilingual education are necessary for the successful implementation of bilingual education reform.

English and French bilingual education and language policy in Cameroon: the bottom-up approach or the policy of no policy?

Cameroon, host to around 280 local languages, two European official languages (English and French) and Pidgin English, has been struggling since the 1960s to achieve official bilingualism for national unity and integration. This policy implies that each citizen should learn and use both official languages. The greatest means to implement this language policy has been formal education. However, the failure or mitigated results of the State’s initiatives to produce competent bilingual citizens led to a resurrection and fast dissemination of a defunct education programme launched by the State in 1963 and which consisted of a dual-medium (English and French) and dual-curriculum (British and French curricula) programme offered to a handful of selected Cameroonians. The many obstacles to this atypical and complex programme led the State to stopping the experiment. In 1989, an equivalent programme was launched in two private primary schools and, nowadays, dozens of such schools do the same nationwide without any official recognition. This study examines the State’s tolerance of this very demanding but rapidly spreading programme operating outside the country’s primary education curricula and pedagogical requirements, among other issues, but which seems so attractive to parents. This attractiveness comes from the fact that this dual-medium and dual-curriculum programme enables pupils to become competent bilinguals in English and French. However, because the programme entails extra burdens for parents and pupils, one of the findings this study arrives at is that the same degree of bilingualism could be obtained through a version of the content and language integrated learning (CLIL) approach.

Preschoolers’ lexical skills in two majority languages: Is there evidence for the onset of sequential bilingualism?

Aims and objectives: This study measured bilingual lexical skills in children just starting preschool and in others who had been attending preschool for one year. It aimed to investigate how children’s lexical abilities were influenced by length of contact with structured bilingual input at school, in a context where two majority languages are taught through the educational system. Methodology: The participants were 72 children starting their first and second year in preschool, aged 2;11–3;4 ( N = 35) and 3;11–4;4 years ( N = 37), respectively. The children came from Maltese-dominant homes and attended the same state preschool where, in line with established bilingual educational policy, they were expected to receive systematic oral exposure to English. Receptive picture name judgement and picture naming tasks in Maltese and English were employed to measure receptive and expressive lexical abilities. Data and analysis: Correct receptive judgement and naming responses were analysed as a function of age group and language of testing. Findings: Comparison of 3- and 4-year-old performance revealed marked growth in Maltese but limited improvement in English for the older group. This profile was inconsistent with lexical outcomes expected for children receiving significant exposure to a second language (L2) in preschool. The findings call for reconsideration of the assumption that preschool entry for Maltese-dominant children and the sequential bilingual exposure associated with it bring about an improvement in L2 lexical abilities. School and home bilingual input, children’s learning demands and Malta’s sociolinguistic context were considered as possible contributing factors. Originality: To our knowledge, a focus on preschoolers’ lexical skills in two typologically distant, majority languages against a backdrop of stable bilingualism is novel. Significance: Given the bilingual stability and socio-cultural uniformity of the broader context for this study, the findings are proposed as a point of reference for evaluating preschoolers’ bilingual lexical skills.

Revitalization of indigenous languages and cultures: critical review of preschool bilingual educational policies in Chile (2007–2016)

ABSTRACT Public education policies governing language revitalization and the teaching of indigenous languages have been in place for more than 20 years in Chile. In this journey, there has been considerable progress nationwide in the education of a generation of children in an intercultural socio-educational environment. However, there still exist challenges for ongoing progress towards specific goals, such as bilingualism in children. Bilingual education policies in Chile have focused mainly on 6–13-year-old children, relegating preschool education (0–6 years), one of the most relevant educational levels in the socio-linguistic revival process, to a secondary role. In this context, we examine top-down official policy documents regarding intercultural education in early childhood, developed between 2007 and 2016. Attempting to identify some of the main foci of the language policies that may influence the implementation in preschools, we present an intertextual and critical language policy analysis of these documents used in intercultural and bilingual preschools. In doing so, we compare the consistencies and locate the implicit inconsistencies in the policy positions on bilingual education in preschools. We conclude the article by outlining suggestions for languages policies and teacher education in Chile, and the possible implications for other countries.

The ‘native speaker effects’ in the construction of elite bilingual education in Castilla-La Mancha: tensions and dilemmas

ABSTRACTThis article focuses on the ‘native speaker effects’ (Doerr, N. M., ed. 2009. The Native Speaker Concept: Ethnographic Investigations of Native Speaker Effects. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter) pertaining to the construction of eliteness in Spanish-English CLIL-type bilingual programmes in the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). We focus our attention on St. Teo’s school, one of the target schools of the sociolinguistic ethnography carried out in state-run and state-run private schools in La Mancha City (LMC) – 2015/2018. Data includes long-term participant observation, audiotaping of classroom interactions in the CLIL subjects, semi-structured interviews with different stakeholders, and institutional documents of the language-in-education policies implemented in the region of Castilla-La Mancha. We discuss how St. Teo’s has adapted competitively to local bilingual education policies by relying on native speakers of English as guarantors of educational elitism, distinctiveness and linguistic prestige in the highly commodified market of English. The analysis brings to the fore how the inclusion of English native teachers in St. Teo’s bilingual programme has had an immediate effect on the current English-medium teaching practices, resulting in asymmetrical partnerships between content and native English teachers and causing tensions and dilemmas among teachers participating in the bilingual programme.

Bilingual education and CLIL in the Netherlands

AbstractThe Netherlands is often held up an example of a ‘success story’ in terms of practices and research regarding the teaching and learning of subject content in a second language (de Graaff & van Wilgenburg, 2015;Pérez-Cañado, 2012). Nearly 30 years after its initial beginnings, bilingual secondary education in the Netherlands continues to thrive and to evolve in fitting with educational demands, as does the research associated with it. This Special Issue includes contributions addressing Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) as a pedagogical approach in the context of bilingual education as a curricular paradigm, both specifically within the Dutch context. The issue contains six research articles from different perspectives, supported by discussions both from an international research standpoint and from the educational field. It is hoped that the publication of this issue will not only indicate a next stage for bilingual education policy and practice, but also give impetus to new areas for research.

'We did it ourselves': The Deaf Social Movement and the Quest for the Legal Recognition of the Libras Sign Language in Brazil

This paper presents the results from a qualitative study on the history of the Deaf social movement in Brazil and the collective actions of its members to achieve legal recognition of Libras - the Brazilian Sign Language. The study was undertaken between 2009 and 2013 in several Brazilian capitals. We interviewed Deaf and hearing activists, Sign language specialists, Deaf education researchers, and members of the government. We also analysed written and audio-visual documents from personal collections and public and private institutions. These discoveries made it possible to trace the transformation in the Deaf community from its emergence in the context of the disabled social movements of the 1980s to the far more public demonstrations in the 1990s. The study also looks at the progressive empowerment of the movement's members, and their collectively defined ideologies, that were designed to promote and justify their political agenda. The paper also attempts to clarify the movement's role in the approval of the Libras Federal Law 10.436 of April 2002, regulated by decree 5.626 in December 2005, and discusses its importance in guaranteeing government bilingual educational policies for Deaf students.

A Comparative Study of Bilingual Education Policy between Korea and Australia: Focusing on the History of Development and Current System

A Comparative Study of Bilingual Education Policy between Korea and Australia: Focusing on the History of Development and Current System