Bicycle Network Research Articles

Commuting patterns and bicycle level of traffic stress (LTS): Insights from spatially aggregated data in Franklin County, Ohio

This study analyzes the relationships between bicycle network design and commute mode shares in Franklin County, Ohio. We first adopt the bicycle level of traffic stress (LTS) criteria to measure bicycle network design. Then, we develop a fractional multinomial logit model to simultaneously estimate the determinants of the shares of commuters who regularly go to work by carpooling, riding public transit, bicycling, and walking. The analytical results show that increasing the proportion of low-stress road segments (LTS 2) is statistically significant and positively associated with the share of bicycle commuters at the census block group level. However, we do not observe a significant relationship between the proportion of very low-stress road segments (LTS 1) and the share of bicycle commuters. This study suggests that social and cultural relevant factors are more important predictors of reductions in automobile use as compared to those factors representing road conditions.

Analysing the dynamic performances of a bicycle network with a temporal analysis of GPS traces

The main goal of this paper is to describe temporal analysis methods of cyclists’ GPS traces and apply them to a dataset recorded in the city of Bologna, Italy. The dataset consists of approximately 27,000 GPS bike traces registered in May 2016. The novelty of the developed method consists in a particular pre-processing step to reconstruction of the cyclist’s speed profile, despite the disturbed location information of GPS traces. Thanks to a detailed representation of the road network, important indicators, such as speed in motion, average waiting times at intersections and even waiting times for specific turn manoeuvres inside junctions can be extracted from the speed profile. These are relevant quantities for the network analyses and the calibration of route choice models.The results reveal that waiting times represent 15% of the total trip duration in average and they differ significantly between cyclists and turn-typology, just as average speeds vary strongly among cyclists. These findings suggest that link-cost functions for bicycle routing should include both waiting times that could be modelled as a function of specific attributes of the network, as well as components that consider the different dynamic behavior of cyclists’ types (careful, correct, reckless).

SETTING PRIORITY LIST FOR CONSTRUCTION WORKS OF BICYCLE PATH SEGMENTS BASED ON ECKENRODE RATING AND ARAS-F DECISION SUPPORT METHOD INTEGRATED IN GIS

Bicycling and walking are essential elements of sustainable transportation. These transportation modes effectively reduce the negative environmental impacts of transport and improve the quality of life. It is not only recognized by governments but also naturally become more prevalent in modern society. Nowadays research on bicycling and interest in related topics is dramatically increasing, but while researchers focus on modern technologies and collecting data from portable devices, there are quite a few studies on the effectiveness of investments in bicycle infrastructure, and even less discussed is a question how to set the priorities for construction works of the bicycle path network. To fill this gap this paper presents the universal method of ranking the priorities for development and renewal of bicycle pathway segments. The process is realized by hybrid Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) Additive Ratio ASsessment with Fuzzy (ARAS-F) model, based on Eckenrode rating. Given criteria and their weights apply only to the specifics of this case study, and it need adaptation if used for other territories. Presented case study gives insight into the task of upgrading bicycle networks – how to overcome the inequalities, fragmentation and build missing links. Developed hybrid MCDM model integrated into Geographic Information System (GIS) allows quickly find rationally balanced solutions and develop bicycle network in efficient way.

Validation of Bicycle Level of Traffic Stress and Perceived Safety for Children

The level of traffic stress (LTS) methodology was developed to measure, track, and improve the suitability of bicycle networks. Thanks to the simplicity of its data needs and interpretation, LTS has been implemented by several states, regions, cities, non-profits, and researchers. However, relatively few validations of the methodology exist. There is a specific gap in relation to safety perceptions for children, an important group since it serves as the critical population for LTS 1. This study validates LTS using a survey of parents in Denver, Colorado, in which they are asked about perceived safety and biking allowance relative to roadway design characteristics. After the LTS score and biking allowance rates for 612 roadway scenarios are determined, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine the suitability of LTS for children. Findings suggest that while LTS 1 and LTS 4 align well with stated preferences, parents told that their children would be able to tolerate some roadway conditions—when allowing for adult supervision—that are currently considered LTS 2 or even LTS 3. These scenarios are primarily on low-volume roadways that have bike lanes. By further refining LTS, it is hoped to ensure that all populations have access to safe and comfortable bicycle facilities.

Development of a large-scale transport model with focus on cycling

Abstract This study presents a transport model to better model cycling demand. The model improves modelling of cycling in several ways compared to a conventional transport model. First, it uses a detailed bicycle network containing information about existing bicycle infrastructure. Second, generalised cost measures based on different bicycle route choice models are calculated and compared to evaluate how to best represent the impact of bicycle infrastructure in the model. Third, the model utilizes a refined zone system with smaller zones of size 250 m × 250 m. Using these smaller zones, more short-distance tours are included in the model, and these are predominantly walking and cycling trips. Fourth, the model considers cycling also as an access mode choice to public transport. Therefore, the model treats cycling and public transport as both competing and complementary modes. Results show that the model captures detailed individual heterogeneity in cycling demand for different trip purposes. Impacts of bicycle infrastructure, land use characteristics and individual/household socio-demographics are investigated. Detailed individual level travel time and generalised cost are derived for cyclists of different socio-demographics. The result highlights the importance of choosing a good measure of generalised cost, given that different bicycle route choice models result in different effects of bicycle infrastructure. In future applications, the model can be used to evaluate proposed bicycle investments regarding their impact on link flow, bicycle route choice, modal shift and generation of completely new tours. The model can also be a powerful tool in a cost-benefit analysis of bicycle investments.

First-and-last mile solution via bicycling to improving transit accessibility and advancing transportation equity

The speed advantage of bicycling surpasses walking as a better solution to the first-and-last-mile problem, thus improving transit accessibility and equity. As more cities are investing in bike infrastructures, it's essential to estimate to what extent the transit accessibility can be increased through the bicycle-transit modal solution to ensure sound bike network planning. To address this uncertainty, this paper creates a quantity-based method to measure the pedestrian- and bicycle-transit accessibility on the basis of which impacts of bicycling and walking on transit accessibility are estimated and compared. Meanwhile, the benefit of bicycling the first-and-last mile to transportation equity is investigated among social groups defined by income and race. The case study of Hamilton County, Ohio demonstrates that the transit access distance by bicycling is tripled compared with that by walking. The extended access distance increases the transit job accessibility by 43.70%. Moreover, it advances transit equity, which is reflected in an upgraded transit accessibility to jobs for low incomes and minorities. The paper contributes to advancing understanding the capacity of bicycling as a first-and-last-mile connector to improve transit accessibility and equity. The developed methodology can serve as a tool to facilitate the bikeway planning for extending transit point-to-point mobility.

A composite zonal index for biking attractiveness and safety

Zonal characteristics (e.g. built environment, network configuration, socio-demographics, and land use) have been shown to affect biking attractiveness and safety. However, previously developed bikeability indices do not account for cyclist-vehicle crash risk. This study aims to develop a comprehensive zone-based index to represent both biking attractiveness and cyclist crash risk. The developed Bike Composite Index (BCI) consists of two sub-indices representing bike attractiveness and bike safety, which are estimated using Bike Kilometers Travelled (BKT) and cyclist-vehicle crash data from 134 traffic analysis zones (TAZ) in the City of Vancouver, Canada. The Bike Attractiveness Index is calculated from five factors: bike network density, centrality, and weighted slope as well as land use mix and recreational density. The Bike Safety Index is calculated from bike network coverage, continuity, and complexity as well as signal density and recreational density. The correlation between the Bike Attractiveness Index and the Bike Safety Index in Vancouver is low (r = 0.11), supporting the need to account for both biking attractiveness and safety in the composite index.

Geographical prerequisites of organization of bike rest as a variety of active leisure in Kharkiv

The purpose of this article is to highlight the opportunities and prospects for development of cycling in Kharkiv based on the analysis of the geographical prerequisites for its development: natural and social resources and projects of bicycle reform. Main material. The article describes theoretical aspects of cycling development as a form of free time activities, including approaches to the interpretation of the concepts of «leisure», «free time», «recreation»; the essence and features of cycling as physical recreation and active leisure, conditions for the development of cycling. The geographic prerequisites for cycling organization in Kharkiv are characterized by a favorable physical-geographical component. Thus, the landscape of the city facilitates the organization of cycling even for unprepared participants due to small differences in altitude. Climatic characteristics make it possible to organize cycling in Kharkiv almost all year round, with the exception of a short off-season. The total area of green plantations in Kharkiv is more than 11,000 hectares, of which the Gorky Central Park of Culture and Leisure, Lisopark, and the Sarzhyn Yar recreational zone are more suitable for cycling. At the same time, an analysis of the socio-economic prerequisites for the development of cycling in Kharkiv indicates a number of factors impeding its development in the city, in particular, poor quality of roads, absence of bike lanes, cycle lanes, special markings for cyclists on public roads. The current state of cycling tourism development in Kharkiv is characterized by presence of only two bike paths equipped in accordance with all European standards. There are several projects for the development of cycling infrastructure in the city now: the project of the bicycle network in the central part of Kharkiv «Re-cycle Kharkiv»; the project of the cycle path «Another Way»; project «Green network of Kharkiv». Along with this, the information support for the development of cycling in Kharkiv is insufficient. Conclusions and further research. The urban environment of Kharkiv is favorable for the development of cycling for many reasons. The most favorable season is the period from March to November, along slightly rugged terrain (almost the entire territory of the city, with the exception of certain areas), better through forests (Lisopark, Grigorovskyi bir) or along rivers. Cycle paths according to European standards are laid only in the Lisopark’s area and Sarzhyn Yar, which is insufficient. The problematic issues hindering the development of cycling tourism in Kharkiv include: insufficient network of bike paths, concentration of the existing network in the Shevchenko district, while in other Kharkiv districts these opportunities are significantly limited, poor development of the bicycle infrastructure system, lack of comprehensive information support. The prospective direction is the development of the Kharkiv Green Network project, which provides laying bike paths not along highways, but at a certain distance from them with the involvement of green zones, abandoned territories, provided they will be well-equipped. In this case, the opportunities and prospects for the development of cycling will be determined, meeting the main theoretical basics of physical recreation and leisure. To improve the information support of cycling tourism, it is recommended to create a specialized bike site with the following sections: accessibility; specifications; safety; cycling infrastructure; memos - with multimedia content for each, including cartographic materials.

Bayesian models with spatial autocorrelation for bike sharing ridership variability based on revealed preference GPS trajectory data

Increasing bike sharing ridership to reduce traffic congestion and air pollution has become the major goal of policy makers and transportation planners. In this study, aggregated macro-level models are developed to investigate and quantify correlations of bike sharing ridership variability in the city of Seoul. The bike sharing kilometres travelled (BSKT) is introduced as the ridership measurement, and a revealed preference method for its estimation is proposed using more than five million trip trajectories of global positioning system (GPS) collected from the bike sharing system of Seoul city. Six different models grouped into three categories are estimated, including linear regression, Bayesian model without spatial effect and Bayesian models with spatial autocorrelation. Five categories of variables are used to explain the variability of BSKT in Seoul. The contribution of these variables in intra-zonal BSKT and inter-zonal BSKT are also modelled and compared. The findings suggest a strong correlation among BSKT, bike sharing stations and bicycle network variables. The model comparison results indicate that the performances of the models with spatial autocorrelation are considerably improved.

Analysis of Network Structure of Urban Bike-Sharing System: A Case Study Based on Real-Time Data of a Public Bicycle System

To better understand the characteristics of a bike-sharing system, we applied complex network methods to analyze the relationship between stations within the bike-sharing system. Firstly, using Gephi software, we constructed the public bicycle networks of different urban areas based on the real-time data of the Nanjing public bicycle system. Secondly, we analyzed and compared degree, strength, radiation distance, and community structure of the networks to understand the internal relations of the public bicycle system. The results showed that there were many stations with low usage of public bicycles. Furthermore, there was a geographical division between high-demand and low-demand areas for public bicycles. The usage of public bicycles at a station was not only related to land use but also related to the usage of bicycles at stations nearby. Moreover, the average service coverage of the public bicycle system was consistent with the original intention of “the first and last mile”, and public bicycles could meet different travel needs.

A longitudinal study of bike infrastructure impact on bikesharing system performance in New York City

The sustainability of bikesharing systems depends on the bicycle network connectivity and accessibility. However, studies of bike lane infrastructure investment impacts on bikesharing ridership have been limited to station-level ridership to support bikeshare operators’ resource allocation decisions. City planning agencies also need to forecast and analyze bikeshare demand in order to make investment decisions of bike facilities over time. To measure the marginal effect of building bike lanes on bikeshare demand at a network-wide level over time, an autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity (ARCH) model with autoregressive (AR) disturbance is proposed to capture system-wide bike ridership. The model is applied to investigate the relationship between bikeshare average daily trip counts and the total length of bike lanes in New York City (NYC) regardless of specific locations. Our results show that the installation of one additional mile of bike lanes in NYC led to an average increase of 102 bikesharing daily trips. Spatial heterogeneity is addressed through two market segments by borough (Manhattan vs. Non-Manhattan), which indicates that the improvement of bike lanes had a significant impact on bikesharing ridership in Manhattan, generating 285 more trips with one mile of bike lane built in Manhattan, but was not as effective outside of Manhattan. In addition, model results show that there were 135 and 13 more trips generated per day when one more bikesharing sharing station was added in Manhattan and Non-Manhattan, respectively. The marginal effect could vary due to the specific implemented location of a bike lane. We demonstrate that this model, as opposed to the previous studies in the literature developed at the station-level, can provide new insights into system-level causality and temporal lag characteristics. When considering whether a city agency should install a set of bike lanes immediately or to stage them over multiple weeks, the “discount rate” for ridership benefits is estimated via a proposed model for different types of investment. The results of investment scenario analysis show that there is a higher effective “discount rate” for ridership benefits from front-loading all of the investment.

Cycle accessibility and level of traffic stress: A case study of Toronto

This paper examines the level of traffic stress for cyclists on the street and path network in the City of Toronto. Link as well as intersection stress is calculated to develop a citywide network of cycling stress. The cumulative opportunities reachable at four levels of cycling stress are calculated for each dissemination area in the city. The results show a low level of cycling access (<5000 jobs) across most of the city at low levels of stress (LTS ≤ 2). Only at level of stress three, where cyclists may be required to negotiate with vehicles and may be in proximity of high-speed traffic, does cycling accessibility rise above 15,000 jobs for a sizeable section of the city. The link between low-stress access to jobs and the decision to cycle from home is investigated using a binary logit model. The results indicate that the cycling accessibly measure has a significant effect on choosing cycling as the travel mode with larger effect for low-stress access. The low stress cycling accessibility to subway stations is calculated as an example of the practical applications of this method and illustrates the limited cycling access to many stations in the Toronto network. Further, a theoretical scenario analysis is undertaken comparing different bicycle network scenarios. Three scenarios are tested 1) removing all cycle tracks, 2) upgrading all bike lanes to cycle tracks, and 3) decreasing street speeds by 10 km/h on the road network entire network. Scenario 3 in particular drastically increases cycling access to jobs.

Incorporating bicycling demand into pavement management systems for convenient bikeway networks

Several cities around the world have announced strategies to extend and (or) upgrade their bikeway networks in response to the rapid increase of bicycle users. However, there is a disconnection between these strategies and management systems, often used for the scheduling of maintenance and rehabilitation of roads. Traditional pavement management systems fail to incorporate bicycle pathways considering bicycling demand, along with pavement condition, as a driving element to budget for improvements. More convenient and safer bicycling facilities can encourage more individuals to shift their daily commuting habits to bicycling. In this study, we incorporate bicycling demand into pavement management systems to produce strategic plans for the maintenance and improvement of the bicycle networks. Furthermore, here we employ smartphones to represent bicycling demand using GPS trajectories of bicycles. In addition, goal optimization is applied to schedule interventions and improvements. Two scenarios are investigated with different annual budgets.

Bikeway prioritization to increase bicycle network connectivity and bicycle-transit connection: A multi-criteria decision analysis approach

Due to limited resources such as budget and land space, it remains challenging to identify key prior corridors on which investments on bikeways (e.g., traditional and protected bike lanes) are most valuable to increasing low-stress bike network connectivity and bicycle-transit connection. In built-up urban areas, it’s usually difficult to find the extra space for building bikeways, and vehicle delays could be worse off if there is no road widening. Facing these challenges, the paper introduces a systematic planning analytics aiming to increase bicycle connectivity and bicycle-transit connection with minimized impacts on motor vehicles and cost. The stakeholders concerned include bicyclists, transit users, motor vehicle drivers, and investors. To reduce conflict potentials due to multiple factors involved in decision making choices between stakeholders, a Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) technique is applied to compare alternatives based on a set of performance evaluation criteria. Performance criteria include bicycling connectivity between origins and destinations, bike share connectivity to destinations, bicycle-transit service coverage population, bike share connectivity to transit, automobile traffic delay, and capital costs. Criteria weights are determined by pair-wise comparisons in which the conflicts between stakeholders and trade-offs among criteria are considered in a quantity-based method. A final preference score calculated in the sum of the weighted and normalized performance measurements is used to rank alternatives. The approach is applied through a case study in the Uptown Cincinnati, Ohio to determine the priorities of the proposed new bikeways in the area. The results indicate that the protected bike lanes exhibit a more significant advantage over bike lanes in terms of the benefits for bicyclists and transit users. At the same time, however, higher construction cost and countermeasures to reduce the potential of consequent traffic congestion need to be need carefully considered.

Data-driven Bicycle Network Analysis Based on Traditional Counting Methods and GPS Traces from Smartphone

This research describes numerical methods to analyze the absolute transport demand of cyclists and to quantify the road network weaknesses of a city with the aim to identify infrastructure improvements in favor of cyclists. The methods are based on a combination of bicycle counts and map-matched GPS traces. The methods are demonstrated with data from the city of Bologna, Italy: approximately 27,500 GPS traces from cyclists were recorded over a period of one month on a volunteer basis using a smartphone application. One method estimates absolute, city-wide bicycle flows by scaling map-matched bicycle flows of the entire network to manual and instrumental bicycle counts at the main bikeways of the city. As there is a fairly high correlation between the two sources of flow data, the absolute bike-flows of the entire network have been correctly estimated. Another method describes a novel, total deviation metric per link which quantifies for each network edge the total deviation generated for cyclists in terms of extra distances traveled with respect to the shortest possible route. The deviations are accepted by cyclists either to avoid unpleasant road attributes along the shortest route or to experience more favorable road attributes along the chosen route. The total deviation metric indicates to the planner which road links are contributing most to the total deviation of all cyclists. In this way, repellant and attractive road attributes for cyclists can be identified. This is why the total deviation metric is of practical help to prioritize bike infrastructure construction on individual road network links. Finally, the map-matched traces allow the calibration of a discrete choice model between two route alternatives, considering distance, share of exclusive bikeway, and share of low-priority roads.

Accounting for mediation in cyclist-vehicle crash models: A Bayesian mediation analysis approach

Cyclist safety is affected by many factors on the zonal level. Previous studies have found associations between cyclist-vehicle crashes and vehicle and bike exposures, network configuration, land use, road facility, and the built environment. In addition, the network configuration, land use, and road facility were found to affect bike exposure levels. The association of zonal characteristics with both exposure and crashes may bias the development of macro-level bike safety models. This paper aims to explain these associations simultaneously using a form of Structural Equation Modelling approach. The analysis assesses the mediated effects that some variables have on crashes through their effects on bike exposure (by setting bike exposure as a mediator). Data from 134 traffic analysis zones (TAZ’s) in the City of Vancouver, Canada is used as a case study. The indirect effect of network configuration, land use, and road facility on cyclist-vehicle crashes was assessed through Bayesian mediation analysis. Mediation analysis is an approach used to estimate how one variable transmits its effects to another variable through a certain mediator. These effects could be direct only, indirect only (through a certain mediator), or both direct and indirect. The results showed that the bike kilometers travelled (BKT) was a mediator of the relationship between network configuration, land use, and road facility and cyclist-vehicle crashes. The mediation analysis showed that some variables have different direct and indirect effect on cyclist-vehicle crashes. This indicates that while some variables may have negative direct association with crashes, their total crash effect can be positive after accounting for their effect through exposure. For example, bike network coverage and recreational density have negative direct association with cyclist-vehicle crashes, and positive indirect association leading to positive total effect on cyclist-vehicle crashes.

Bike network design problem with a path-size logit-based equilibrium constraint: Formulation, global optimization, and matheuristic

This study focuses on the optimal network design problem of bike paths, which are on or adjacent to roadways but are physically separated from motorized traffic within the existing urban network. The problem seeks to maximize the total route utilities of cyclists and capture their actual route choice behavior using a path-size logit model. A mixed-integer nonlinear nonconvex model is developed for the problem and is reformulated and linearized into a mixed-integer linear program. The program is solved with a global optimization method and a matheuristic. Results are provided to illustrate the performance of these methods and the model properties.

Attitude towards Bike Use in Rende, a Small Town in South Italy

The bike can contribute to the development of sustainable mobility. This requires interventions to promote bike use, such as increasing the cyclist safety, construction of bikeways, and provision of ancillary services and bike sharing activities. In the literature many studies focus on bike use and agree with the application of such interventions. However, these studies are often related to specific urban areas that are very different; the transferability of results and models has not been adequately analyzed. This work investigates the attitudes towards cycling in Rende, a small town in Southern Italy. The aim is to determine in what conditions the users would be willing to use bicycles in relation to the trip purpose, the presence or absence of cycle paths, and the availability of bike sharing services. Different factors, such as age, gender, and occupation, are taken into account. The results show that the bike use could be incentivized by enlarging the existent bike network, adopting bike sharing systems, and promoting specific policies oriented to sustainable transport modes. Furthermore, two aspects emerged from the analysis: the importance of studying the propensity to use bikes by different groups of users and the importance of focusing interventions on market segments with greater willingness to bike.

Method to Identify and Visualize Barriers in a Low-Stress Bike Network

Low-stress bike networks are often disconnected, with gaps or barriers that make travel between two points impossible without riding on high-stress roads. Barriers can also force long detours that people are not willing to make. Although existing methods of low-stress bike network analysis have been used to point out some barriers, a method was needed to systematically identify and draw barriers to assist in network planning. Such a method was developed, taking only the low-stress network as an input, and yielding a set of polylines that indicated barriers to bicycling. Applications in Arlington, Virginia and Boston, Massachussets showed how it detected what might otherwise have been hidden barriers. The method also successfully highlighted critical low-stress links that breached what would otherwise have been a far longer barrier.

Bicycle Usage in the Urban Transportation: Pristina Example

The aim of the research is to provide suggestions for increasing the use of bicycles, which are part of the modern transportation policies. The methodology in the research was developed according to the physical characteristics of the city center in Pristina and the new regulations of the Pristina Development Plan. In this context, in the questionnaires, the approach, demand and application possibilities of the passengers against the other transportation systems (except private vehicles) were evaluated. The field research questions were asked to get the thoughts of public transport passengers about these issues. The responses of 782 passengers that are directly or indirectly related with bicycle usage.&#x0D; As a result of these recommendations, Pristina will have two-way bicycle lanes with a length of 16 km to complete the cycling network. In this context, it was emphasized that the suggestions for the urban bicycle network in Pristina were evaluated in order of priority.&#x0D; Recommendations are given in accordance with the infrastructure of the route and it is expected that a regular transportation type will be provided to the urban transportation of Pristina by carrying out the arrangements on a 16 m wide road between the two sidewalks (platforms). In the new regulations, a two-way 4 km bike lane is proposed in the central ring of Pristina, as a result of the bicycle lanes that will form the bicycle network in Pristina to implement the bicycle public transport integration strategy in the future. Approximately 8.5 km two-way bicycle lane in central ring, 1.5 km two-way bicycle lane in the southwestern region and 2km bicycle lane in the southeastern region has been proposed for Pristina.&#x0D; Key words: Urban traffic, Transportation Demand Management, Bike Lane, Pristina.