Bergamot Oil Research Articles

Possible involvement of the peripheral Mu-opioid system in antinociception induced by bergamot essential oil to allodynia after peripheral nerve injury

The essential oil of bergamot (BEO) is one of the most common essential oils and is most familiar to the general public. The aims of this study were to investigate the effect of intraplantar (i.pl.) BEO on neuropathic allodynia induced by partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL) in mice and the opioid receptor subtypes involved in the antiallodynic effects of BEO. Our findings showed that a single dose of i.pl. administration of BEO significantly inhibited the PSNL-induced neuropathic pain using the von Frey test. The i.pl pretreatment with naloxone methiodide, a peripherally acting μ-opioid receptor preferring antagonist, β-funaltrexamine hydrochloride (β-FNA), a selective μ-opioid receptor antagonist, and β-endorphin antiserum significantly reversed the antiallodynic effect of BEO in the von Frey test, but not by naltrindole, the nonselective δ-opioid receptor antagonist and nor-binaltorphimine, the selective κ-opioid receptor antagonist. Furthermore, in the western blotting analysis, i.pl. administration of BEO resulted in a significant blockage of spinal extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) activation induced by PSNL. Naloxone methiodide and β-FNA significantly reversed the blockage of spinal ERK activation induced by BEO. These results suggest that i.pl. injection of BEO-induced antiallodynic effect and blockage of spinal ERK activation may be triggered by activation of peripheral μ-opioid receptors.

IN VITRO CALLUS INDUCTION AND COMPARATIVE GC-MS ANALYSIS OF METHANOLIC EXTRACTS OF CALLUS AND LEAF SAMPLES OF AMPELOCISSUS LATIFOLIA (ROXB.) PLANCH

Objective: The aim of the present study was to develop a callus induction protocol and comparative study of therapeutic phytochemicals present in in vivo leaf and in vitro callus extracts through Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis.Methods: Murashige and Skoog media was used as culture media for callus induction. In vitro callus induction protocol was developed by studying the effects of various plant growth regulators like auxin, 2, 4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), NAA (naphthalic acetic acid), alone and in combination with cytokinin BAP (benzyl aminopurine), on leaf and stem explants. The GC-MS analysis of Ampelocissus latifolia was carried out on Shimadzu QP-2010 plus with thermal desorption system TD 20 to study the phytochemical profile.Results: In vitro callus induction protocol was developed for the plant and callusing was done from leaf and stem explants of Ampelocissus latifolia. The best result for callus induction was obtained using leaf explant, and callus production were maximum in Murashige and Skoog medium fortified with BAP (0.5 mg/l) and NAA (1.0 mg/l). Major compounds identified in the GC-MS analysis were Campesterol, Stigmasterol, Beta-Sitosterol, Docosanol, Dodecanoic acid, etc., in in vitro extract and Beta Sitosterol, Tocopherol, Squalene, Bergamot oil, Margarinic acid, Hexadecanoic acid, etc., in in vivo extract. The different active phytochemicals identified have been found to possess a wide range of biological activities, thus this analysis forms a basis for the biological characterization and importance of the compounds identified for human benefits.Conclusion: This is the first report on callus induction in Ampelocissus latifolia. From the results obtained through the in vitro callus induction and its comparative GCMS analysis with in vivo extract, it is revealed that Ampelocissus latifolia contains various bioactive compounds that are of importance for phytopharmaceutical uses. The GCMS analysis revealed that the amount of Beta-sitosterol and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) was very high in in vitro extract as compared to in vivo extract.

Performance of continuous countercurrent extractor on the fractionation of Citrus bergamia essential oil using ethanol/water mixtures as solvents

Bergamot model mixture and crude bergamot essential oil (CBEO) were fractionated in a perforated rotating disc contactor (PRDC) using as solvents ethanol with 30% (Et30) and 40% (Et40) water, in mass. The apparatus performance was evaluated by experimental extraction indices, essential oil (EO) folding and estimative of mass transfer coefficients. The effects of the solvent to feed mass flow ratio (S/F), disc rotation speed (DRS), feed composition, and water content in the solvent over the process performance were thus appraised. Furthermore, the fractionation of model mixtures was simulated by Aspen Plus software. It was experimentally verified that higher S/F improved the extraction indices and mass transfer, whereas solvent Et40 and higher DRS also contributed for that results. Solvent Et40 extracted lower amount of components from the EO, but the Folds were similar to the ones achieved using solvent Et30. The simulation followed the same tendency. For the model mixture, a 1.54-fold EO was obtained, while for the CBEO a 1.4-fold EO was reached. Overall, solvent Et40, S/F close to 2, and low DRS exhibited the best results for the fractionation of CBEO in PRDC.

Thermo-oxidative decomposition of lime, bergamot and cardamom essential oils

The thermal decomposition of three essential oils has been studied at 300 °C, using a 9% oxygen in nitrogen atmosphere, to mimic the thermal environment of flavours under low-temperature tobacco heating conditions. The starting compositions of the lime, bergamot and cardamom oils were determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The thermo-oxidative decomposition was evaluated by applying on-line pyrolysis-GC/MS. The main constituents of the oils studied were cyclic and linear monoterpenoids; however, the relative intensities of these components were characteristically different between oils. Lime oil was dominated by monoterpene hydrocarbons, while the other citrus oil, bergamot oil contained in addition a significant number of esters and alcohols. Oxygen-containing monoterpenoids were the dominant constituents of cardamom oil. The relative proportion of the constituents of all three essential oil samples significantly altered during oxidative pyrolysis at 300 °C. The strained rings of bicyclic monoterpenes (pinenes, sabinene, and thujene) underwent scission, resulting in the formation of monocyclic monoterpenes (limonene etc.). Both linear and cyclic terpene acetates decomposed via elimination of acetic acid, so linalyl acetate produced myrcene and ocimene, while terpinyl acetate formed mostly limonene and terpinolene. The relative intensities of linalool and eucalyptol were reduced during pyrolysis, which can be explained by dehydration reactions resulting in the formation of myrcene and ocimene, or limonene and terpinolene, respectively. The chemical reactions that occurred were explained by bond splitting and intramolecular rearrangement mechanisms, with oxygen playing a role in the initiation processes.

The stability of three different citrus oil-in-water emulsions fabricated by spontaneous emulsification

In this study, emulsions were prepared through spontaneous emulsification, using three different citrus oils as the oil phase and Tween 80 as the surfactant. Utilizing 4% Tween 80, three types of citrus oil emulsions were prepared with small particle size, monomodal distribution and high transmission. After 24 h, each emulsion exhibited different degrees of gravitational separation. Mandarin oil emulsions were the most unstable, showing coalescence of small droplets with an obvious cream layer formed at 9 h. Bergamot oil emulsions possessed small droplets with the best stability over 24 h, due to their relatively polar components (e.g. linalyl acetate) and water-insoluble constituents (e.g. γ-terpinene). These results suggest that the emulsifying properties and instability mechanism of citrus oil emulsions are strongly dependent on the inherent properties and composition of citrus oils. This study is significant for the development of an effective strategy to improve the stability of citrus oil-based colloidal systems.

Biological Activities and Safety of Citrus spp. Essential Oils.

Citrus fruits have been a commercially important crop for thousands of years. In addition, Citrus essential oils are valuable in the perfume, food, and beverage industries, and have also enjoyed use as aromatherapy and medicinal agents. This review summarizes the important biological activities and safety considerations of the essential oils of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis), bitter orange (Citrus aurantium), neroli (Citrus aurantium), orange petitgrain (Citrus aurantium), mandarin (Citrus reticulata), lemon (Citrus limon), lime (Citrus aurantifolia), grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi), bergamot (Citrus bergamia), Yuzu (Citrus junos), and kumquat (Citrus japonica).

The Anti-stress Effects of Essential Oils

The aim of this study is to determine the anti-stress effects of essential oils. For this, three different essential oils (lavender, bergamot, sweet orange) were blended and applied to college women for 2 weeks, and pre- & post-psychological stress states, pre- & post-stress indexes and stress resistance were measured. In terms of research design, a single experimental group survey that compared stress changes before and after the test was performed. The study results found the following: 1) Psychological stress states before and after the application of anti-stress essential oils: The changes in psychological stress after the application of three different anti-stress essential oils (lavender, bergamot, sweet orange) were examined. After the oils were applied, average stress levels in college decreased from 2.25 to 1.97 (t=2.269*). Disorder caused by stress also dropped from 2.47 to 1.95 (t=2.888**), showing a statistically significant difference before and after the experiment. Stress-coping capacity increased from 2.96 to 3.12, but no statistical significance was found. 2) Changes in stress indexes and stress resistance before and after anti-stress essential oils: The stress indexes and stress resistance before and after the application of anti-stress essential oils (lavender, bergamot, sweet orange) were measured through an HRV test. The average stress index in the experimental group decreased from 110.05 to 102.50 while stress resistance increased from 84.25 to 93.60. In all categories, statistical significance was observed. 3) Anti-stress effects of essential oils (lavender, bergamot, sweet orange): The said results show that lavender, bergamot and sweet orange essential oils are statistically significant in terms of psychological stress, stress indexes and stress resistance, proving that essential oils have anti-stress effects.

Characterization of Limonoids in Citrus Essential Oils by Means of Supercritical Fluid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry

The dual purpose of this research was to investigate the presence of limonoid aglycones in Citrus essential oils and to develop a rapid and reliable SFC-APCI-QqQ MS method for their characterization. In this study, 12 limonoid aglycones were tentatively identified in 11 different citrus essential oils. The developed method allowed a very fast separation in less then 7 min with a very low amount of organic solvent. Calibration curve of limonin was constructed by using a triple quad MS detector in order to quantify the limonin content in the analyzed samples. The content of limonin ranged from 0.5 (clementine essential oil) to 21.2 mg L−1 (bergamot essential oil) in the cold-pressed Citrus essential oils analyzed. Moreover, product ion scan (PIS) acquisition mode was also used for the structure elucidation of isobaric compounds. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first investigation on limonoid aglycones in Citrus essential oils.

Antinociceptive effect of inhalation of the essential oil of bergamot in mice

Bergamot essential oil (BEO) has proven wide evidence of pharmacological antinociceptive effectiveness both in nociceptive and in neuropathic pain models. The antinociceptive properties of BEO for inhalation have not been investigated. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of the inhalation of BEO on formalin-induced nociceptive response in mice.Male ddY-strain mice (Japan SLC, Hamamatsu, Japan) of 23–25 g of weight at the time the experiments underwent the formalin test. Twenty μl of formalin (2% in saline) were administered into the plantar surface of the mice hindpaw and the time of licking/biting was observed and recorded at intervals of 5 min. The device for BEO inhalatory delivery consisted in a filter paper disc soaked with known volume of BEO placed on the edge of the cage.Inhalation of BEO exerted antinociceptive activity. In particular, it reduced the formalin-induced licking/biting behaviour in a manner that was dependent on the volume of BEO used in the device for its release and on the time of exposure to the phytocomplex.The results support the use of BEO in aromatherapy for complementary management of chronic pain relief in a stepwise therapeutic programme.

Antifungal Effect of Selected Essential Oils on Malassezia pachydermatis Growth

Abstract The antifungal activities of 14 selected essential oils (at the concentrations of 0.5 %, 5 %, and 30 %) against the yeast Malassezia pachydermatis (18 isolates and one reference strain) were investigated. The isolates of M. pachydermatis were obtained from swabs of external ear canals of healthy dogs using sterile swabs. The determination of the efficacy was based on a modified disc diffusion method (CLSI M44-A2). The best antifungal efficacy (100 %) was shown by clove, cinnamon and oregano at the concentration of 30 %; less significant efficacy was shown at the concentration of 5 % (38 %, 33 % and 5 %, respectively). Satureja inhibited the growth of Malassezia (efficacy of 16 %) only at the concentration of 30 %. Bergamot, lavender, juniper, cedar, sage, tea-tree, grapefruit, pine, chamomile and yarrow essential oils were not able to form inhibition zones as defined in the methodology used (greater or equal to 15 mm) in all concentrations used. Therefore, according to the interpretation criterion, they were considered ineffective. In all cases, the concentration of 0.5 % was not effective against the growth of Malassezia yeasts.

Carvacrol and human health: A comprehensive review.

Carvacrol (CV) is a phenolic monoterpenoid found in essential oils of oregano (Origanum vulgare), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), pepperwort (Lepidium flavum), wild bergamot (Citrus aurantium bergamia), and other plants. Carvacrol possesses a wide range of bioactivities putatively useful for clinical applications such antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. Carvacrol antimicrobial activity is higher than that of other volatile compounds present in essential oils due to the presence of the free hydroxyl group, hydrophobicity, and the phenol moiety. The present review illustrates the state-of-the-art studies on the antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer properties of CV. It is particularly effective against food-borne pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Bacillus cereus. Carvacrol has high antioxidant activity and has been successfully used, mainly associated with thymol, as dietary phytoadditive to improve animal antioxidant status. The anticancer properties of CV have been reported in preclinical models of breast, liver, and lung carcinomas, acting on proapoptotic processes. Besides the interesting properties of CV and the toxicological profile becoming definite, to date, human trials on CV are still lacking, and this largely impedes any conclusions of clinical relevance.

Antiacne-causing Bacteria, Antioxidant, Anti-Tyrosinase, Anti-Elastase and Anti-Collagenase Activities of Blend Essential Oil comprising Rose, Bergamot and Patchouli Oils

Blended essential oil comprising rose, bergamot and patchouli (RBP) oils with the volume ratio of 6:3:1, respectively have been tested for various biological activities. The blended oil showed antimicrobial activity against Propionibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.003125 %v/v and 0.125 %v/v, respectively. For antioxidant, blended oil showed the half inhibitory concentration (IC50) at 0.67 %v/v and 0.14 %v/v while tested with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6 sulphonic acid) (ATBS) assays, respectively. Blended oil also has anti-tyrosinase activity with 45±4.6%tyrosinase inhibition at 4 mg/mL concentration using modified dopachrome method. However it has no activity on anti-collagenase and anti-elastase.

Characterization of physical properties and electronic sensory analyses of citrus oil-based nanoemulsions

Citrus oils and their emulsions have been widely used in food and beverage products due to their flavor, various beneficial health functions and relative high solubility for lipophilic bioactive components. However, the non-digestibility and instability has limited the application of emulsions made from a single type of citrus oil. In this study, common triacylglycerol oils (i.e. corn oil and MCT oil) and citrus oils (i.e. bergamot oil and sweet orange oil) were used in combination with different mixing ratios (triacylglycerol oil:citrus oil = 1:0, 9:1, 5:1, 3:1, 1:1 and 0:1) to produce various nanoemulsions (10% oil phase), and their physical and electronic sensory properties were systematically characterized. The results demonstrated that the mixed oil nanoemulsions were much more stable than pure citrus oil emulsions. Electronic nose, electronic eye and electronic tongue were shown to be able to provide informative evaluation of the electronic sensory of the emulsions. Data-fitting of these electronic sensory devices significantly improved the effective discrimination and accuracy of sensory evaluation of the emulsions. These results provided basis for using triacylglycerol oils and citrus oils in combination to produce nanoemulsions with superior physical and electronic sensory properties. Moreover, the electronic sensory evaluation method utilized in this study provided a useful approach for evaluation of emulsion-based food and beverage products.

치과용 인상재에서의 클로르헥시딘과 에센셜 오일의 항균성능에 대한 상승효과

There is growing concern about cross infection among the patients to patients, patients to staffs, and tools to patients in healthcare facilities, especially in dentistry. In this study, the most widely used dental impression materials were prepared and the synergy effect of Chlorhexidine and essential oil on antimicrobial activity was examined in the impression materials. Chlorhexidine concentration of 0.1 wt% and 0.5 wt% showed no antimicrobial activity on Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Candida albicans. At 1.0 wt% Chlorhexidine, 0% of E. coli and 34.7% of Candida albicans were survived. Bergamot (Essential oil) concentration of 0.5 wt% and 1.0 wt% showed no antimicrobial activity on E. coli. At 2.0 wt% Bergamot oil, 71.9% of E. coli were survived. Tea tree oil (Essential oil) of 0.5 wt% showed no antimicrobial activity on E. coli. At 1.0 wt% Tea tree oil, 11.2% of E. coli was survived. At 2.0 wt% Tea tree oil, no E. coli was survived. However, no E. coli was survived at the concentration of 0.8 wt% Bergamot with 0.3 wt% Chlorhexidine. At the concentration of 0.8 wt% Tea Tree oil with 0.3 wt% Chlorhexidine, 1.3% of E. coli were survived. The experimental results showed that the synergy effects between Chlorhexidine and essential oils on antimicrobial activity were prominent.

Optimization of the Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Separation of Bergapten from Bergamot Essential Oil.

The possibility of following traditional cold-press extraction with the post process continuous separation of bergapten from bergamot essential oil was investigated. A fractionation tower was used in an experiment in which cold-pressed bergamot oil was extracted in a continuous countercurrent process by supercritical carbon dioxide under different conditions. Bergapten is fairly soluble in CO2 in its supercritical phase, in particular at a density of 277.90 kg⋅m-3, corresponding to a pressure of 8 MPa and temperature of 40°C. Under these conditions, an extract with 0.198% bergapten was obtained, a figure slightly below the percentage of bergapten contained in cold-pressed oil (0.21%). However, at densities below 200 kg⋅m-3, the amount of bergapten in the extracted oil was negligible. Of all tested conditions for separation, the best was found to be at a pressure of 8 MPa and temperature of 70°C, conditions under which bergapten was not detected. The results of the experiment showed that bergapten, and the non-volatile fraction in general, was extracted only in small quantities and was not extracted at all with at a CO2 pressure of 8 MPa.

Aromatherapy: composition of the gaseous phase at equilibrium with liquid bergamot essential oil

This work compares the composition at different temperatures of gaseous phase of bergamot essential oil at equilibrium with the liquid phase. A new GC–MS methodology to determine quantitatively the volatile aroma compounds was developed. The adopted methodology involved the direct injection of headspace gas into injection port of GC–MS system and of known amounts of the corresponding authentic volatile compounds. The methodology was validated. This study showed that gaseous phase composition is different from that of the liquid phase at equilibrium with it.

Insecticidal effect of several essential oils against Musca domestica

This study aimed to evaluate for the first time the insecticidal effects of essential oils of bergamot (Citrus bergamia), palmarosa grass (Cymbopogon martini), vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides), and red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) against the house fly (Musca domestica). The in vitro study was performed in captured adult flies, which were separated on testing cages (n = 20). Subsequently, the essential oils cited above were used in the concentrations of 1, 5, and 10%, and a control group was maintained for test validation. All flies were monitored for 8 h after treatment. All four oils showed insecticidal effect against the fly species studied in vitro and after 8 h of treatment, an efficacy of 73% was observed for the essential oil of bergamot, 55% for palmarosa grass, 75% for vetiver grass, and 89% for red cedar. We conclude that the essential oils tested showed insecticidal effect against house fly, acting as an environmentally sustainable alternative to be applied in human habitats, especially against flies’ resistant to chemical insecticides. In addition, the use of such oils may decrease the doses of synthetic drugs routinely used.

Effects of Preheating and Storage Temperatures on Aroma Profile and Physical Properties of Citrus-Oil Emulsions.

Citrus oils are used as good carrier oil for emulsion fabrication due to their special flavor and various health-promoting functions. In this study, the effects of preheating temperature (30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 °C) and storage temperature (4, 25, and 37 °C) on aroma profiles and physical properties of three citrus-oil (i.e., mandarin, sweet orange, and bergamot oils) emulsions were systematically investigated for the first time. The results demonstrated the significant impact of temperature on aroma profile and physical properties. The abundance of d-limonene was found to be the main factor determining the aroma of the three citrus-oil emulsions at different preheating and storage temperatures, while β-linalool and linalyl acetate were important for the aroma of bergamot oil emulsion. Preheating temperature showed a profound impact on the aroma of citrus-oil emulsions, and the aroma of different citrus oil emulsions showed different sensitivity to preheating temperature. Storage temperature was also able to alter the properties of citrus oil emulsions. The higher was the storage temperature, the more alteration of aroma and more instability of the emulsions there was, which could be attributed to the alteration of the oil components and the properties of emulsions. Among all three emulsions, bergamot-oil emulsion was the most stable and exhibited the most potent ability to preserve the aroma against high temperature. Our results would facilitate the application of citrus-oil emulsions in functional foods and beverages.

In Vitro Evaluation of Sub-Lethal Concentrations of Plant-Derived Antifungal Compounds on FUSARIA Growth and Mycotoxin Production.

Phytopathogenic fungi can lead to significant cereal yield losses, also producing mycotoxins dangerous for human and animal health. The fungal control based on the use of synthetic fungicides can be complemented by "green" methods for crop protection, based on the use of natural products. In this frame, the antifungal activities of bergamot and lemon essential oils and of five natural compounds recurrent in essential oils (citronellal, citral, cinnamaldehyde, cuminaldehyde and limonene) have been evaluated against three species of mycotoxigenic fungi (Fusarium sporotrichioides, F. graminearum and F. langsethiae) responsible for Fusarium Head Blight in small-grain cereals. The natural products concentrations effective for reducing or inhibiting the in vitro fungal growth were determined for each fungal species and the following scale of potency was found: cinnamaldehyde > cuminaldehyde > citral > citronellal > bergamot oil > limonene > lemon oil. Moreover, the in vitro mycotoxin productions of the three Fusaria strains exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of the seven products was evaluated. The three fungal species showed variability in response to the treatments, both in terms of inhibition of mycelial growth and in terms of modulation of mycotoxin production that can be enhanced by sub-lethal concentrations of some natural products. This last finding must be taken into account in the frame of an open field application of some plant-derived fungicides.

Influence of Counseling Intervention on the Stress-Reducing Effect of Bergamot Oil and on the Concentration-Improving Effect of Rosemary Oil in Aromatherapy

Influence of Counseling Intervention on the Stress-Reducing Effect of Bergamot Oil and on the Concentration-Improving Effect of Rosemary Oil in Aromatherapy