Behaviour Of Horses Research Articles

The intensity of physiological and behavioral responses of horses to predator vocalizations

BackgroundPredatory attacks on horses can become a problem in some parts of the world, particularly when considering the recovering gray wolf populations. The issue studied was whether horses transformed by humans and placed in stable-pasture environments had retained their natural abilities to respond to predation risk. The objective of the study was to determine the changes in cardiac activity, cortisol concentrations, and behavior of horses in response to the vocalizations of two predators: the gray wolf (Canis lupus), which the horses of the breed studied had coevolved with but not been exposed to recently, and Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), from which the horses had been mostly isolated. In addition, we hypothesized that a higher proportion of Thoroughbred (TB) horse ancestry in the pedigree would result in higher emotional excitability in response to predator vocalizations. Nineteen horses were divided into groups of 75%, 50% and 25% TB ancestry. The auditory test conducted in a paddock comprised a 10-min prestimulus period, a 5-min stimulus period when one of the predators was heard, and a 10-min poststimulus period without any experimental stimuli.ResultsThe increase in heart rate and saliva cortisol concentration in response to predator vocalizations indicated some level of stress in the horses. The lowered beat-to-beat intervals revealed a decrease in parasympathetic nervous system activity. The behavioral responses were less distinct than the physiological changes. The responses were more pronounced with leopard vocalizations than wolf vocalizations.ConclusionsThe horses responded with weak signs of anxiety when exposed to predator vocalizations. A tendency towards a stronger internal reaction to predators in horses with a higher proportion of TB genes suggested that the response intensity was partly innate. The more pronounced response to leopard than wolf may indicate that horses are more frightened of a threatening sound from an unknown predator than one known by their ancestors. The differing response can be also due to differences in the characteristic of the predators’ vocalizations. Our findings suggested that the present-day horses’ abilities to coexist with predators are weak. Hence, humans should protect horses against predation, especially when introducing them into seminatural locations.

Equine training aids: can they really improve performance?

The use of training aids within equine training programmes is well established with professional, amateur and recreational riders, and horse owners. However, the claims of training aid manufacturers that the aids promote equine muscle development, gait characteristics, proprioception and the horse's biomechanics have not been evaluated scientifically. Evidence of the impact of training aids on equine behaviour and welfare is also limited. As a result, there is a limited amount of resources available to horse owners, trainers and veterinary professionals wishing to take an evidence-informed approach to the use of training aids. This review considers factors that operators should evaluate when using training aids and explores the evidence base available to help support an ethical approach to equine training and rehabilitation.

Validation of the Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ): A New Survey Instrument for Exploring and Monitoring the Domestic Equine Triad.

Simple SummaryThe Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) is an online questionnaire collecting information from horse-owners and riders on their horses’ training, management and behaviour. In order to compare different populations of domestic equids—for example, according to their breed, discipline, training or management type—it is important that the questionnaire administered to participants has been validated and found to be reliable. The questionnaire must reflect a true assessment of the horse’s behaviour, and, when taken by different users or the same user over time, the results should remain consistent. This article describes the process of validating the E-BARQ questionnaire, using three separate procedures. The results confirmed that the E-BARQ represents a standardised and validated behavioural assessment tool for horses.The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was developed to obtain quantitative data on the domestic equine triad: training, management and behaviour. It can be taken repeatedly, thus collecting longitudinal data to enable evaluation of how changes in a horse’s training and management are reflected in that horse’s behaviour over time and how these changes can impact horse welfare in the longer term. Questionnaire validation and reliability were tested by determining (a) whether an owner’s subjective ratings of their horse’s problematic behaviours or undesirable temperament traits were reflected in the questionnaire scores obtained for that horse (construct validity), (b) whether two respondents, equally familiar with a particular horse, reported comparable scores for that horse through the questionnaire (inter-rater reliability), and (c) whether the same respondent, scoring the same horse after a known interval of time, recorded similar responses (intra-rater reliability). Construct validity testing of 1923 responses showed significant alignment between owners’ reported experience of focal horses’ behaviour and those horses’ E-BARQ scores, with scores varying from 1.13 to 1.34 for ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001) and from 1.06 to 1.43 for non-ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001). Inter-rater reliability testing of ten horse–rider pairs revealed that 203 of the 215 question items were significantly aligned (p < 0.001) when tested by two independent raters. Of the remaining 19 items, four had fair alignment (ĸ = 0.174–0.316; p = 0.281) and ten items, largely related to whether the horse shows behavioural signs related to anxiety when taken away from home, did not align (ĸ = 0; p = 1). Intra-rater reliability tests showed that the responses significantly aligned on all 215 question items tested (p < 0.001). The results of these tests confirmed the construct validity and reliability of E-BARQ as a standardised behavioural assessment tool for horses.

The Development of a Novel Questionnaire Approach to the Investigation of Horse Training, Management, and Behaviour.

Simple SummaryThe way horses are trained and managed influences their behaviour. The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was developed to gather information on the training, management, and behaviour of domestic horses. An international panel was established to assist with the questionnaire development and the pilot questionnaire collected data on 1320 horses. Statistical analysis revealed the E-BARQ to be a suitable representation of relevant features of horse training and management and the objective reporting of horse behaviour.The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) is a questionnaire instrument developed to obtain quantitative data on the domestic equine triad of training, management, and behaviour of horses. The E-BARQ was developed to identify how changes in training and management impact behaviour over time, to define normal behaviour in horses, and to discover how to improve rider safety and horse welfare, leading to ethical equitation. During the development of the E-BARQ, we also investigated how best to motivate stakeholders to engage with this citizen science project. The pilot version of the E-BARQ collected qualitative data on respondents’ experience of the questionnaire. The pilot questionnaire was developed with the assistance of an international panel (with professional expertise in horse training, equitation science, veterinary science, equestrian coaching, welfare, animal behaviour, and elite-level riding), and was used to collect data on 1320 horses from approximately 1194 owner/caregiver respondents, with an option for respondents to provide free-text feedback. A Rotated Principal Component Analysis of the 218 behavioural, management, and training questionnaire items extracted a total of 65 rotated components. Thirty-six of the 65 rotated components demonstrated high internal reliability. Of the 218 questionnaire items, 43 items failed to reach the Rotated Principal Component Analysis criteria and were not included in the final version of the E-BARQ. Survey items that failed the Rotated Principal Component Analysis inclusion criteria were discarded if found to have a less than 85% response rate, or a variance of less than 1.3. Of those that survived the Rotated Principal Component Analysis, items were further assigned to horse temperament (17 rotated components), equitation (11 rotated components), and management and equipment (8 rotated components) groups. The feedback from respondents indicated the need for further items to be added to the questionnaire, resulting in a total of 214 items for the final E-BARQ survey. Many of these items were further grouped into question matrices, and the demographic items for horse and handler included, giving a final total of 97 questions on the E-BARQ questionnaire. These results provided content validity, showing that the questionnaire items were an acceptable representation of the entire horse training, management, and behavioural domain for the development of the final E-BARQ questionnaire.

Gait abnormalities and ridden horse behaviour in a convenience sample of the United Kingdom ridden sports horse and leisure horse population

SummaryThe objectives of this study were to compare horses’ gaits in hand and when ridden; to assess static and dynamic saddle fit for each horse and rider; to apply the Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) and relate the findings to gait abnormalities consistent with musculoskeletal pain, rider position and balance and saddle fit; and to document noseband use and its relationship with mouth opening during ridden exercise. Data were acquired prospectively from a convenience sample of horses believed by their owners to be working comfortably. All assessments were subjective. Gait in hand and when ridden were evaluated independently, by two assessors, and compared using McNemar’s test. Static tack fit and noseband type were recorded. Movement of the saddle during ridden exercise, rider position, balance and size relative to the saddle was documented. RHpE scores were based on assessment of video recordings. Multivariable Poisson regression analysis was used to determine factors which influenced the RHpE scores. Of 148 horses, 28.4% were lame in hand, whereas 62.2% were lame ridden (P&lt;0.001). Sixty per cent of horses showed gait abnormalities in canter. The median RHpE score was 8/24 (interquartile range 5, 9; range 0, 15). There was a positive association between lameness and the RHpE score (P&lt;0.001). Riding School horses had higher RHpE scores compared with General Purpose horses (P = 0.001). Saddles with tight tree points (P = 0.001) and riders seated at the back of the saddle rather than the middle (P = 0.001) were associated with higher RHpE scores. Horses wearing crank cavesson compared with cavesson nosebands had higher RHpE scores (P = 0.006). There was no difference in mouth opening, as defined by the RHpE, in horses with a noseband with the potential to restrict mouth opening, compared with a correctly fitted cavesson noseband, or no noseband. It was concluded that lameness or gait abnormalities in canter may be missed unless horses are assessed ridden.

Does training style affect the human-horse relationship? Asking the horse in a separation–reunion experiment with the owner and a stranger

Humans have shared a long history with horses and today we mainly consider horses as companions for sports and leisure activities. Previously, the human perspective of the human-horse relationship has been investigated but there has been little focus on the horse’s perspective. This study aimed to reveal whether horses show attachment-related behaviour towards the owner compared to a stranger in a modified Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) consisting of a walking phase, a standing still phase, separation from the owner/stranger and lastly a reuinon. We tested 26 privately owned horses in an indoor experimental area of 20 × 14 m. In addition to testing, the owners were asked questions about their training methods. Based on these questionnaire results, owners were divided into groups depending on whether they mainly used negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement or a combination of both methods during training. They also completed a horse personality questionnaire. The results showed that the horses spent more time in door proximity when separated from the owner and the stranger (owner: Z = −3.46, P = 0.001; stranger: Z = 3.40, P = 0.001) compared to the reunion phase, and they sought human proximity during reunion. The horses’ heart rates were higher during the separation compared to the reunion with both the owner (Z = −3.44, P = 0.001) and the stranger (Z = −2.40, P = 0.016). These results are examples of attachment-related features and suggest that horses consider both the owner and the stranger as a safe haven. However, the results are not clear as to whether or not horses perceive their owners as a secure base since their exploratory behaviour during owner reunion was similar to that during stranger reunion. Interestingly, horses trained with positive reinforcement spent most time in door proximity during separation from the stranger (χ2(2) = 6.18, P = 0.045) and similarly there was a tendency also during owner separation (χ2(2) = 5.20, P = 0.074). The same group of horses also spent more time in stranger proximity (χ2(2) = 6.16, P = 0.046) and in physical contact with stranger (χ2(2) = 8.62, P = 0.013) than the other two training style groups during reunion. When correlating scores from the horse personality questionnaire with behaviours during owner reunion, we found few significant associations, but the trait Inquisitive correlated with both proximity to owner and ears forward (rs = 0.41, P = 0.035 and rs = 0.49, P = 0.011, respectively), and ears forward also correlated with the trait Excitability (rs = 0.39, P = 0.047) and Dominance (rs = 0.46, P = 0.019). Hence, this study revealed attachment-related behaviours of horses towards humans even though the results cannot resolve whether these fulfil all criteria for an attachment-bond.

Evaluating Stress in Riding Horses: Part One—Behavior Assessment and Serum Cortisol

Stress can impact the health and well-being of animals negatively. Behavioral and physiological changes, particularly serum cortisol, offer objective and easy-to-use methods of evaluating stress in horses. However, limited studies support a positive relationship between changes in stress-related serum cortisol concentrations and stress-related behaviors in horses. This study assessed differences in stress-related behaviors and serum cortisol concentrations in horses used in a therapeutic riding program (TRH) or university riding program (UNI). Riders were grouped by disability type (TRH) or by experience level (UNI) to determine equine stress impacts. Two trained observers evaluated equine behavior during multiple riding lessons. Behaviors were scored live and via video to assess the accuracy of live scoring. Blood samples for serum cortisol concentrations were collected before, immediately after, and 30 minutes after riding lessons. Serum cortisol concentrations decreased from before to after a riding lesson (TRH, P ≤ .01; UNI, P = .0004) and increased over the course of the study (TRH ≤ 0.0002; UNI, P ≤ .0001). All serum cortisol concentrations remained within or below normal ranges. Overall behavior scores were relatively low in horses participating in both riding programs. Similar behavior scores were observed in horses ridden by novice and experienced riders (P ≥ .1662); however, behavior scores differed in TRH horses ridden by one group of disabled riders during a riding lesson (P ≤ .0431). A relationship between stress-related behavior and cortisol concentration changes was not shown clearly, but data suggest that horses were in a low-stress environment.

Stereotypic behaviour in horses lowers stress but not spatial learning performance

Stereotypies are common in captive animals, but it remains unclear if they are pathological by-products of captive conditions or if they have an adaptive function. Here, we address this question using crib-biting, a common type of stereotypic behaviour in domestic horses, thought to result from stressful or frustrating environments. Since chronic stress is known to affect learning abilities via dopaminergic modulation in the basal ganglia, we predicted that stereotypic horses would underperform in learning tasks compared to healthy control animals, in line with the pathological by-product hypothesis. We exposed 19 crib-biters and 18 control horses in six spatial tasks, and collected behavioural and physiological data (heart rate, heart rate variability and salivary cortisol) to assess learning performance and stress levels. We found that, during the learning phase, 10 of 19 crib-biters showed stereotypic behaviour. Surprisingly, crib-biters that displayed the stereotypic behaviour (Group A) had lower salivary cortisol values compared to crib-biters that did not display the stereotypic behaviour (Group B) or control horses (Group C), after the first part of the experiment. In addition, a smaller proportion of horses in Group A displayed behaviours indicating frustration during one of the test compared to Group B. Moreover, we found no difference between the three groups in their learning performance nor in their heart rate or heart rate variability measures. Our results therefore suggest that crib-biting has an adaptive function and can help horses to reduce stress and frustration during learning tasks, which then enables them to show normal learning performance.

Dually investigated: The effect of a pressure headcollar on the behaviour, discomfort and stress of trained horses

The Dually™ is a control headcollar designed to improve equine behaviour during handling challenges by applying greater pressure than a standard headcollar. Previous research indicated it did not improve compliance in naïve horses but did result in higher Horse Grimace Scale scores (HGS) indicative of discomfort. However, subjects had not been trained to step forward to release the pressure applied by the headcollar. The current study aimed to determine the effect of training on behaviour and physiology of horses wearing the Dually™ headcollar during handling challenges. To this end, subjects received three training sessions prior to completing two handling tests in which they crossed distinct novel obstacles, one wearing a Dually™ with a line attached to the pressure mechanism and one attached to the standard ring as a control. Behaviour was coded by hypothesis blind researchers: time to cross the obstacle and proactive refusal (moving away from the obstacle) were recorded as indicators of compliance and the Horse Grimace Scale was used to measure discomfort caused by each configuration of the device. Infrared thermography of ocular temperature, heart rate variability (RMSSD and low/high frequency ratios (LF/HF)) and salivary cortisol were measured as indicators of arousal. Data from the previous study on Naïve horses was also included to compare responses to the Dually in Naïve and Trained horses. Training resulted in a decrease in RMSSD (p = 0.002) and an increase in LF/HF (p = 0.012), compared to rest, indicating arousal. As per the original study, horses did not complete the tests more quickly in the Dually, compared to control (p = 0.698). Trained horses from this study tended to be more proactive in the Dually compared to Controls (p = 0.066) and significantly more so than Naïve horses from the previous study (p = 0.002) suggesting that behaviour becomes less desirable during early Dually training. Yet, stress and HGS indicators were not higher in the Dually compared to Control during testing. Results suggest the Dually has a negative effect on behaviour but not on stress or discomfort during short handling challenges. Further research is warranted to determine the long-term effect of Dually experience on behaviour and welfare.

Identifying Sources of Potential Bias When Using Online Survey Data to Explore Horse Training, Management, and Behaviour: A Systematic Literature Review

Owner-reported behavioural observations form an essential part of the veterinarians’ diagnosis and treatment plan. The way we train and manage horses affects their behaviour and, in turn, their health and welfare. Current horse training and management practices are largely driven by traditional techniques and longstanding methodologies. These approaches generally lack an evidence base for evaluation purposes. The absence of evidence and evaluation contributes to the persistent use of risky practices and this, in turn, increases risk of potential harms for both horse and rider, and fuels questioning of the equine industry’s current social license to operate. Objective evidence is required to make training and management decisions based on demonstrable best practice. Large-scale experimental or intervention studies using horses are generally not practical because of the associated costs and logistics of gaining ethical approval. Small studies generally lack statistical power and are subject to the effects of many forms of bias that demand caution in the interpretation of any observed effects. An alternative to collecting large amounts of empirical data is the use of owner-reported observations via online survey. Horse owners are ideally placed to report on the domestic equine triad of training, management, and behaviour. The current article highlights three sources of potential bias in a systematic review of literature on large-scale online studies of horse owners’ observational reports that met the following selection criteria: English-language, published, peer-reviewed articles reporting on studies with over 1000 respondents and open access to the survey instrument. The online surveys were evaluated for three common forms of bias: recall, confirmation, and sampling bias. This review reveals that online surveys are useful for gathering data on the triad of horse training, management, and behaviour. However, current use of online surveys to collect data on equitation science (including horse training, management, and behaviour) could be improved by using a standardised and validated tool. Such a tool would facilitate comparisons among equine and equitation science studies, thus advancing our understanding of the impacts of training and management on horse behaviour. The authors of the current review suggest the use of a standardised behavioural and management assessment tool for horses. Such a tool would help define what constitutes normal behaviour within geographically disparate populations of horses, leading to improvements in rider safety and horse welfare.

Effects of grazing muzzles on behavior, voluntary exercise, and physiological stress of miniature horses housed in a herd

Grazing muzzles are a popular and effective management tool used to help prevent weight gain in obese-prone equids. Concerns have been raised over their possible negative impact on horse well-being as muzzles may interfere with normal grazing and social behaviors. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of grazing muzzles used for different lengths of time on behavior, voluntary exercise, and physiological stress of grazing horses housed in a herd. Six mature miniature horses (initial BW of 114.9 ± 11.4 kg; BCS of 6.0 ± 0.8) were studied using a 3 × 3 Latin Square repeated measure design with horses receiving one of three treatments daily for a period of 3 weeks. Treatments were unmuzzled (M0), muzzled for 10 h/d (M10, 0830-1830 h), or muzzled for nearly 24 h/d (M24). Horses were housed as a herd on a 0.6 ha grass pasture. Body weight (BW) was assessed weekly. Reaction to muzzle application was scored daily. Behavior was monitored with video twice weekly for two hours a day. An aggressiveness rank was assigned to each horse each period. Physiological stress was assessed weekly using changes in heart rate (HR), indices of heart rate variability, and salivary cortisol concentrations (SC). Voluntary exercise was measured for 24 h twice during each period. Data were analyzed as repeated measures with treatment and wk as main effects. Horses muzzled for 24 h/d lost BW while horses muzzled 0 or 10 h/d gained BW (P = 0.01). Horses muzzled for 24 h/d spent more time grazing (P = 0.04) and less time resting (P = 0.03) than M10 horses. Unmuzzled horses spent more time walking than M24 horses (P < 0.01), more time cantering than M10 (P = 0.02), and more time trotting than M10 and M24 (P = 0.04 and 0.01 respectively). Both muzzled treatments spent less time autogrooming with their mouths than unmuzzled horses (P < 0.01). Horses muzzled for 24 h/d had lower HR than M0 horses (P = 0.01) and higher beat-to-beat intervals than M0 and M10 horses (P = 0.01 and 0.03 respectively) while grazing. There were no effects of treatment on muzzle acceptability score, salivary cortisol, voluntary exercise, or change in aggressiveness rank. In conclusion, muzzling for 24 h/d prevented weight gain and did not cause apparent physiological stress. The lower HR and higher beat-to-beat interval in horses muzzled 24 h may be a potential health benefit and needs further exploration.

Building Bridges between Theory and Practice: How Citizen Science Can Bring Equine Researchers and Practitioners Together.

Simple SummaryHorse owners and caregivers are ideally placed to inform equine researchers about the training, management and behaviour of their horses, and online surveys are a simple and easy way to collect this information. However, as potential survey respondents may need some incentive to engage in detailed surveys, we investigated the popularity of four potential no-cost tools to compensate survey participants for their time. While our inquiry found at least one of these tools would be of benefit to most participants, it also revealed the need to improve horse riders’ and handlers’ access to scientific findings.Over the last decade, equitation scientists have increasingly relied on online survey tools to gather information on horse training, management, behaviour and other equine-related subjects. With a detailed knowledge of their animals, horse owners and riders are ideally placed to contribute to research but are sometimes reluctant to engage with and devote time to surveys. The current article reveals, through consultation with stakeholder groups, the potential of a range of motivational items to boost horse-owner participation. A short, three-question inquiry was developed to rank respondents’ (n = 747) preferred survey tools and other items designed to engage the equestrian community with the donation of data. Respondents were asked to assign themselves to one of four categories: academics/researchers, professionals, practitioners and enthusiasts. The inquiry offered respondents the choice of three hypothetical tools: a standardised tool to measure behaviour over time; a logbook tool to record training and behaviour on a regular basis; and a chart to compare an individual horse’s behaviour with that of the general horse population. While analysis revealed that stakeholders considered at least one of the tools to be useful, it also exposed significant differences among the perceived usefulness of the various tools themselves. Using free-text responses, participants described the challenges faced when gathering information on horse training, management and behaviour. Qualitative analysis of these data revealed the need to improve the current dissemination of scientific findings to bridge various knowledge gaps. The Equine Behavior Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) is a longitudinal instrument that investigates horse training and management practices and permits an analysis of their relationship with behaviour. The current stakeholder consultation contributed to the final version of the E-BARQ questionnaire, identified incentivising items that can be offered to putative E-BARQ respondents, guided the eventual selection of a Share-&-Compare feedback chart, and reinforced the need for open-access dissemination of findings.

Equine atypical myopathy: consumption of sycamore maple seedlings (Acer pseudoplatanus) by pastured horses is driven by seedling maturity and might be associated with phenolic compounds.

Poisoning with Acer pseudoplatanus L. in horses contradicts the hypothesis of coexistence between plants and vertebrate herbivores being mediated through antipastoral traits as toxins. However, incidental observations showed that horses evaded Acer seedlings with primary leaves. The objective of the present cross-discipline study was (i) to analyse whether developmental stages of A. pseudoplatanus L. differed as to phenolics hypothesised as antipastoral traits, and (ii) to observe systematically the selection behaviour of pastured horses towards A. pseudoplatanus seedlings. Phenolic profiles of five developmental stages from fruits to seedlings of progressing age up to adult leaves of A. pseudoplatanus and Acer campestre L. were characterised. Video recordings of grazing behaviour of 29 pastured horses towards seedlings of A. pseudoplatanus resulted into 117 sequences as additional field data. The horses ingested 19.1 per cent of juvenile seedlings with cotyledons (1.65 mg total phenolics/g fresh weight (FW), 82 compounds, 0.02 mg total gallic acid/g FW) yet only 5.46 per cent of older seedlings with primary leaves (8.48 mg total phenolics/g FW, 120 compounds, 3.13 mg total gallic acid/g FW). Horses distinguished between seedlings in distinct stages that could be chemically distinguished, too. Acer seedlings with primary leaves provide a strong, but not complete antipastoral effect that correlates with dramatic changes in phenolic compounds.

Time-Budget of Horses Reared for Meat Production: Influence of Stocking Density on Behavioural Activities and Subsequent Welfare.

Simple SummaryHorses reared for meat production are kept in group pens at high stocking densities. Due to the lack of scientific knowledge concerning the welfare of horses reared in this way, the aim of the present work was to assess whether their behaviours were affected by stocking density. The time-budget of the horses was also studied to evaluate if and how it differed compared with that of wild-living horses. We found that the expression of locomotion, playing, and self-grooming increased as the space allowance per horse within the group pens increased, indicating the potential to use these behaviours as indicators of positive welfare. Moreover, an altered time-budget was identified, implicating the condition of compromised welfare in these animals. Standing was the main expressed behavioural activity. A higher than usual amount of time was spent in a lying position, and a lower than usual amount of time was dedicated to feeding and locomotion. This study was the first to assess the behaviour of horses reared for meat production. The results show that more attention needs to be directed at the housing and management conditions under which horses reared for meat production are kept in in order to improve their welfare.Horses reared for meat production can be kept in intensive breeding farms where they are housed in group pens at high stocking densities. The present study aimed to evaluate whether the expressed behaviours correlated with stocking density, and to compare their time-budget with that of wild-living horses. An ethogram of 13 mutually exclusive behavioural activities was developed. Behavioural observations were performed over a 72 h period on group pens selected on the basis of stocking density and the homogeneity of breed, age, height at the withers, and time since arriving at the farm. Scan sampling (n = 96 scans/horse/day) was used on 22 horses. The mean frequency (%) ± standard deviation (±SD) for each behavioural activity was calculated to obtain the time-budget. The associations between time-budget and stocking density were evaluated using a bivariate analysis. The relationships were analysed by Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r). Our results show that locomotion, playing, and self-grooming positively correlated with a reduction in stocking density, indicating the potential to use these behaviours as positive welfare indicators for young horses kept in group pens. The data also revealed an unusual time-budget, where the main behavioural activity expressed was standing (30.56% ± 6.56%), followed by feeding (30.55% ± 3.59%), lying (27.33% ± 2.05%), and locomotion (4.07% ± 1.06%).

Difficult horses – prevalence, approaches to management of and understanding of how they develop by equine veterinarians

SummaryDespite the considerable risk of veterinary occupational injury due to adverse horse behaviour, limited information is available about the prevalence of unwanted equine behaviours or common approaches to managing them. An understanding of learning theory may affect veterinarians’ approaches to dealing with unwanted equine behaviours; however, learning theory is not widely taught. The aim of this study was to document the challenges equine veterinarians face when working with difficult horses and define their approaches to managing them, including their understanding of the processes through which horses learn. A link to an online survey was distributed via email amongst UK equine veterinarians. Descriptive and Kruskal–Wallis statistical analyses were performed. We found that 95% of equine veterinarians reported working with difficult horses on at least a monthly basis, resulting in 81% of them sustaining at least one injury in the last 5 years. The most popular methods of dealing with unwanted behaviours were physical and chemical restraint. 46% of those surveyed had never received any tuition on the processes through which horses learn. Despite 79% believing they had at least a moderate understanding of equine learning theory, they performed poorly when tested, with only 10% able to get at least five out of six questions correct. Further education on the subject of learning theory may be beneficial.

Enclosed versus ring feeders: Effects of round-bale feeder type on horse behavior and welfare

In an effort to minimize the amount of hay wasted from a round bale, horse owners generally surround the bale with a round-bale feeder. While often necessary as a supplemental feed source, this feeding technique restricts the space each horse has to feed, altering a horse's natural eating behavior. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of the round-bale feeder type on stress, agonistic behaviors, and horse preference of feeder types. Two feeder treatments were evaluated: (1) round bale surrounded by a ring feeder (ring feeder; B&W Farm and Ranch, Humboldt, KS) and (2) round bale covered by an enclosed bale feeder (enclosed feeder; Hayhuts LLC, Palm Coast, FL). Two horse herds (n = 5 horses per herd) were evaluated using a crossover experimental design, where each herd received each treatment for one week to evaluate behavior and cortisol concentrations. After this, each herd had access to both feeder treatments at the same time to evaluate preference. Feeding horses with the enclosed feeder resulted in fewer total agonistic threats (P < 0.0001) and less total avoidance behavior (P = 0.0007) compared with the ring feeder. No differences in total aggressive behavior (P = 0.655), total time spent eating (P = 0.088), or cortisol concentrations (P = 0.219) were observed between treatments. During preference testing, horses spent more time eating at the enclosed feeder than at the ring feeder (P < 0.0001). Although there was no indication that horses fed through the ring feeder had poor welfare, horses showed a preference toward the enclosed feeder. Thus, the enclosed feeder may be beneficial for improving horse welfare by providing horses with a resource they prefer and reducing distress experienced by horses while eating.

Effect of Human Attachment Style on Horse Behaviour and Physiology during Equine-Assisted Activities-A Pilot Study.

Simple SummaryHuman–horse interaction, such as attachment and bonding behavior, is particularly important during repeated equine-assisted activities (EAA). This bond needs to be reliable, positive, and reciprocal to create a secure human–horse attachment and achieve improvements in EAA participants. This study aims to determine the effect of the attachment style (AS) of at-risk adolescents on the physiology and behavior of therapy horses during a 10-week EAA. Adolescents completed a questionnaire to determine their AS before starting the program. Horse response during the EAA was recorded, looking at horse heart rate and behaviour (the occurrence of affiliative and avoidance behaviours). Adolescents’ AS affected horse affiliative behaviour during grooming, and horse heart rate and avoidance behaviour during riding. The results indicate that horse welfare was not threatened during the EAA with at-risk adolescents. Over time, therapy horses showed overall more affiliative behaviour and less variability in their stress response (heart rate and avoidance behaviours) toward insecure AS adolescents during grooming and riding, respectively. These results suggest that insecure AS can positively impact horse response during EAA relative to secure AS in humans. However, the implications of human AS on the functioning of horse–human interaction and its mechanisms are yet unknown.Equine-assisted activities (EAA) for human well-being and health rely on human–horse interactions for therapeutic effect. At-risk participants with mental and emotional difficulties can show poor social skills and functioning relationships, potentially leading to unsuccessful human–horse interaction in EAA. This study addresses the effect of the attachment style (AS) of at-risk adolescents on horse physiology and behaviour during an equine-facilitated learning (EFL) program. Thirty-three adolescents participated in a 10-week EFL program with nine therapy horses (the same therapy horse per adolescent throughout the program). Adolescent AS was categorized into secure (n = 7), preoccupied (n = 11), dismissing (n = 1), or fearful (n = 12) using an Experiences in Close Relationships – Relationship Structure questionnaire. Horse heart rate (HR) and behaviour (affiliative and avoidance behaviours) in response to adolescents were recorded during grooming and riding. Over time, horses with fearful AS adolescents showed consistently more affiliative behaviours compared to those with preoccupied AS adolescents during grooming, and more constant HR and avoidance behaviours compared to those with secure AS adolescents during riding. These results suggest that a more predictable and less stressful physiological and behavioural response of therapy horses toward participants in EAA with emotional and behavioural difficulties can be mediated by a human insecure attachment style.

Effects of grazing muzzles on behavior and physiological stress of individually housed grazing miniature horses

Grazing muzzles are used on obese-prone equids to limit intake of pasture while grazing. However, the length of time grazing muzzles must be worn to prevent weight gain and whether they impede normal grazing behavior to the degree they impact welfare is unknown. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of muzzling for different lengths of time on horse behavior and physiological stress. Six mature miniature horses (initial BW of 230 ± 19.6 kg; BCS 6 ± 0.4) were studied using a 3 × 3 Latin Square repeated measure design with horses receiving one of three treatments over three 21 d periods. Treatments were unmuzzled (M0), muzzled for 10 h (M10, 0830-1830 h), or muzzled for 24 h (M24). Horses were housed in adjacent individual 0.11 ha grass paddocks for 24 h/d. Daily at 0800 h, muzzles were removed, horses were groomed and fed 14 g vitamin and mineral supplement. Muzzles were re-applied at 0830 h. Body morphometrics were assessed at the start and end of each period. Each horse’s willingness to accept muzzle application was measured daily using a 1 (strongly accepts) to 5 (strongly rejects) scale. Horse behavior was monitored twice weekly with video recordings for 1 h each in the morning and afternoon. Physiological stress was assessed weekly using salivary cortisol concentrations (SC), heart rate (HR), and indices of heart rate variability (HRV). Data were analyzed as repeated measures with treatment and wk as main effects. M24 horses lost BW while M0 and M10 horses gained BW over the course of the study (P = 0.01). M24 horses spent more time grazing than M10 horses (P = 0.04). M0 horses spent more time walking than M10 or M24 horses (P = 0.02). M10 horses spent more time resting than M0 or M24 horses (P < 0.01), and a trend was observed where M10 horses spent more time lying down than M24 horses (P = 0.06). There was no effect of treatment on behaviors associated with frustration including pawing and head shaking. There was no effect of treatment on muzzle acceptability score; however, all horses were less accepting of muzzle application by the third wk of each period (P = 0.01). HR was lower and beat-to-beat interval was higher in M24 horses than in M0 horses (P = 0.02, 0.04 respectively). Salivary cortisol concentrations were not different between treatments. Muzzling horses while on pasture for 24 hs a day resulted in a small loss of BW and altered time spent performing behaviors, but no observed impact on our physiological stress measures.

Experimental determination of the impact energy of horse kicks

Kicking is a natural behaviour of horses, but it can become problematic if stall components are hit and do not withstand the impact load. Injuries may occur due to material failure or hoof entrapment. In Germany, while the Animal Protection Law is intended to prevent such incidents, neither the law nor the corresponding interpretation aid indicates how this requirement should be fulfilled. This paper gives an overview of the methods of determining horse kick energy and presents results of own kick energy measurements. The outcome of a re-evaluation of literature data is presented and two attempts to roughly estimate the expected kick load are introduced. The developed measuring device consists of a steel-made framework, mechanical energy sensors, and an impact panel. Its verification was carried out by loading with impacts of defined energy applied by a pendulum impact machine. The measurement of kick energy was taken at a stud farm in the context of heat detection by observing the response of a mare to the presence of a stallion, whereby the kicks of the stallion were measured. With regard to the kick-resistance and entrapment-safety calculation, a representative value of 71 J was calculated and using a safety factor of 1.5 this gives a design value of 106 J. The presented results and the theoretical background of kick energy measurements described should in the future form the basis for the dimensioning of kick-resistant and entrapment-secure stall planks. • Theory background of horse kick energy determination. • Horse kick measurement applying specially designed dynamic energy sensors. • Kick energy determined to 106 J (design value) for stall plank dimensioning. • Result validation performed by application of various estimation approaches. • Kick-resistant and entrapment-safety stall plank dimensioning now possible.

Horse Behavior, Physiology and Emotions during Habituation to a Treadmill.

Simple SummaryTreadmills have become a popular and important tool in various aspects of equestrianism. Habituation to treadmill locomotion has been investigated mainly in the biomechanic aspect. The behavioral aspect of habituation was seldom described; therefore, it was not clear if the habituation process was the same in horses with different temperaments and emotional responses to the handler. We assessed the results horses got in the novel object test, the handling test, and both positive and negative emotional response tests, and their connection with behavior-related features of the habituation process. The four principal components in the examined horses were identified: “Flightiness,” “Freeziness,” “Curiosity,” and “Timidity”. We found that the features of Flightiness gradually decreased during habituation. A part of them increased again when the horses started a new challenge. Features of Freeziness and Curiosity showed strong stability throughout the whole habituation. Features of Timidity strongly increased when the treadmill was introduced; thus, the challenge was completely changed. The first entrance and work on a treadmill seemed to cause fright responses. We conclude that the habituation process should be adapted to the horse’s temperament and emotionality. Such findings will improve handler safety and lead to increased horse welfare during habituation.A treadmill is an important tool in the equine analysis of gait, lameness, and hoof balance, as well as for the evaluation of horse rehabilitation or poor performance including dynamic endoscopy. Before all of these uses, horses have to be habituated to a treadmill locomotion. We used principal component analysis to evaluate the relationship between aspects of the horse’s temperament and emotional response, and progress in the behavioral habituation to a treadmill. Fourteen horses were tested, by the same familiar handler, using the novel object test, the handling test, and both positive and negative emotional response tests. Then, four stages of gradual habituation of the first work on a treadmill were conducted. Each time, the horse’s behavior was filmed. Data obtained from ethograms and heart rate measurements were tested. Four principal components were identified in examined horses: “Flightiness”, “Freeziness”, “Curiosity”, and “Timidity”. Flightiness was connected with nervousness, agitation by new objects, and easy excitability, and gradually decreased of features during habituation. Timidity was associated with a lack of courage and stress in new situations, and those features strongly increased when the treadmill was introduced. Freeziness and Curiosity features showed strong stability throughout the whole habituation. The results of this study provide evidence for a connection between temperament, emotional response, and habituation process in a horse.