Battle Tank Research Articles

Risk Factors Associated with Musculoskeletal Injuries within the Crew of the Leopard 2 A6 Main Battle Tank Using Inertial Movement Unit Sensors: A Pilot Study.

This study aims to assess the musculoskeletal risk of military personnel on a Leopard 2 A6 main battle tank crew and to identify associated factors for future prevention and mitigation strategies. A sample of 57 Portuguese military personnel, who are or were part of the Leopard 2 A6 main battle tank crew, answered a questionnaire on their perception of task performance, considering muscle demands, comfort, posture, movements, and associated symptoms. A subsample of four soldiers from the Armoured Squadron of the Portuguese Mechanized Brigade were assessed using an inertial measurement unit system and underwent a whole-body kinematic analysis coupled with a Rapid Entire Body Assessment during a simulated two-hour mission. The results indicate that soldiers accurately perceive their roles within the crew and that, overall, there is a high risk of musculoskeletal injuries in all tasks. However, tasks directly related to the crew's primary duties carry consistently high risk when considering the time spent on their tasks. This study highlights the need for targeted preventive measures to reduce the incidence and severity of injuries among the crew of the Leopard 2 A6 main battle tank.

Implementation of AI-Based Robotic Self Navigation System

Abstract: Artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized modern weapon systems, offering increased speed, precision, and capability in military operations. However, the use of AI-based weapon systems increases significant moral legitimate, and operational challenges that need to be satisfied in the development of AI-based weapon systems. Autonomous operation is a key feature of A-I-based weapon systems, posing important questions regarding accountability and the risk of unpremeditated outcomes. This automatic weapon is a remote weapon that is automatically aimed and fired at targets that are detected by sensors. The first of its kind to have an integrated system that includes stewardship, pursuit, and firing. The function of automatically selecting, attacking targets could be available on many platforms such as battle tanks, fighter jets, or ships. human out-of-the-the-scheme system, once activated, can select automatically and engage targets without further interference by a human operator. For example “loitering” weapons that once launched, detect interference and attack their conscious targets over a specified area without any further human interference or weapon systems that autonomously use electronic “cramming ” to confuse communications.

Tip of the Spear: Developing Predictive Military Planning Tools Using Hidden Markov Models

The evolution of the modern battlefield is increasingly complex as new technologies emerge. However, the nature of the battlefield still can be explained by Baron De Jomini’s “Grand Tactics.” Military planners’ success is in their ability to develop synergy through layering effects of a complex system at a decisive point on the battlefield. Synergistic effects require subject matter experts (SME) working in planning cells to integrate systems and units in time and space. These planning cells have large footprints and become prioritized in the opposition’s targeting cycle. Without these SMEs, planners are unable to identify the latent variables to achieve the massing of forces at the decisive point. This paper explores the application of Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) to enhance existing Correlation of Forces and Means (COFM) calculators as predictive tools in military planning. Current tools focus on a 3 to 1 force ratio for an offensive operation. They get improved through applying a force equivalent factor. The force equivalent factors are scalars that adjust relative combat power from a single main battle tank to a mechanized infantry vehicle. These tools lack the ability to identify the physics of the battlefield in time and space. The utilization of wargames during planning and training provides a venue for serious games to improve planning tools. It allows a visualization of target pairing and dynamics that a linear equation would miss. This study employs scenarios generated in OneSAF, ranging from simple platoon-level ambushes to combined arms maneuver featuring rotary wing assets requiring a shaping effort to ensure favorable COFMs. The focus of the research lies in leveraging HMMs to establish a time-series indicator of success probability using potentially observable data, with an emphasis on communication dynamics. In this study, we examine observable communication by data generated through both visual and direct contact. Through observation of contact from the friendly and opposition forces will provide a predictor of the hidden state of relative advantage, in time and space. With the data generated by the OneSAF simulation, the HMM determines the states of the operation and probability of success while minimizing required presence inside the units.

Landmine Detection using An Advanced Embedded Microcontroller

During warfare, the detection of landmines is of utmost importance for safely deploying armed vehicles in enemy territory. These vehicles, known as main battle tanks, are crucial for following the path set by manually operated pilot tanks, in order to prevent any damage or distractions to the battle tanks and to minimize casualties among defense crews. Our landmine-detecting robotic vehicles serve the primary purpose of identifying landmines across a large expanse of the defense field. The detonation of these landmines can result in severe harm to soldiers and even release toxic pollutants into the environment. Traditionally, the robots are deployed prior to the commencement of war in the war-based area, where they play a critical role in saving the lives of soldiers

“Always in Red”. The Lark: Great Patriotic War, T.34, Flower Power, Rock and Roll

Here, we discuss the 1965 Soviet film The Lark, Zhavoronok, narrating the escape of the III Reich from a soviet T-34 main battle tank during the Second World War. The film reveals the reception in the USSR of flower power, Allen Ginsberg, and Western counterculture movements connected to the desire for change in the country. The film makes literary and critical intermediations, innovations in the use of the camera, montages, and the presentation of the enemy.

Method of characteristic modes

In recent years, the number of works on the method of characteristic modes and problems solved with its help has increased significantly, which indicates an awareness of its potential and, in connection with this, a growing interest in this approach. The attractiveness of this method lies in the fact that it provides a clear physical picture of the occurring phenomena and the ensuing opportunity to build on this basis methods for creating structures with the required parameters and combating undesirable phenomena. Unfortunately, in the Russian-speaking segment of applied electrodynamics, very few researchers are engaged in the development and application of the approach under consideration. The purpose of this work is to increase the interest of Russian-speaking researchers in the method of characteristic modes. A review of publications devoted to the method of characteristic modes, both early, fundamental and already classic, associated with the names of R.J. Garbacz and R.F. Harrington, and those which have appeared in recent years and offer generalizations of the method for various electrodynamic structures, has been carried out. This includes composite structures consisting of a set of metal and dielectric bodies of various configurations. In addition, variants of the method for antenna arrays of both infinite periodic and finite sizes have been considered. Issues related to modal tracking problems, orthogonal properties of characteristic modes and improving the convergence of solutions have been considered. Much attention is paid to works containing solutions to specific practical electrodynamic problems using the method of characteristic modes. The works have been shown, in which simple and effective approaches based on the method of characteristic modes are given for the design of a ship's HF antenna system, on-board aircraft antennas in the short-wave region, antennas placed on the platform of a battle tank, and the concept of designing an antenna for an electrically small-unmanned aerial vehicle has been presented. Options for solving the problem of reducing the mutual coupling of elements in antenna arrays have been shown. Attention is paid to MIMO antennas, antennas for smartphones, systems with specified radiation zeros, antennas using metasurfaces. According to the authors, the characteristic mode method, taking into account the increasing possibilities of its application, will make it possible to take the next step in the development, analysis or synthesis of new antenna structures that meet ever-increasing modern requirements.

Modeling and Simulation of Elevation Dynamics of Main Battle Tank Weapon System with Linear Graph Method

The use of main battle tanks in armies goes back many years. The most crucial component is undoubtedly the weapon system. In this study, it is aimed to model the elevation dynamics of the weapon system that provides the movement of the weapon system in the vertical axis. The elevation dynamics consists of three parts: an electric motor, a driver, and a barrel. Both parts are expected to have similar vibration characteristics. The linear graph method was preferred as the modeling method. First of all, the system components and types were determined, and the linear graph, normal tree, and tree links of the system were drawn. Then the state variables, primary and secondary variables, as well as the number of branches, nodes, and sources, were determined, respectively. Elemental, continuity, and compatibility equations were written using the obtained graphs. By organizing these equations, state equations were obtained in standard form and matrix form. With the simulation studies carried out in MATLAB/Simulink, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration responses of the breech and muzzle sections were obtained. It is seen that obtained angular displacement, velocity, and acceleration results for both breech and muzzle sections are almost the same. As a result, the breech and muzzle sections have similar vibration motions and have proven to be able to work in harmony. This result shows that the barrel can be designed from two parts without additional stress and tension, which makes it difficult to focus on the target. By forming the barrel in two parts, the risk of damage can be minimized by better distributing the stress and tension occurring in the barrel during firing.

Can a tank ‘umbrella’ protect the turret of a main battle tank?

In response to the destruction of the hatch of main battle tanks, as has been evidenced in the on-going Russo-Ukrainian War, when a bomb or other explosive device is dropped onto the tank or its turret from above, a protective structure that deflects the device from causing harm to the turret – and thus the tankers – is desirable. This concept paper discusses one possibility: a tank ‘umbrella’, which offers, at least in theory, protection to the turret and tankers.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COMBAT CAPABILITIES OF MODERN TANKS OF VARIOUS TYPES

Modern war is a test of the material and spiritual forces of the people, the state and its Armed Forces, which prompts each country to maintain its defense capability at a level that guarantees reliable protection of society. Analysis of the nature of armed conflict in recent decades shows a sharp increase in the impact of modern weapons and military equipment on the course and outcome of military operations. Currently, weapons and military equipment form the basis of the combat power of the armed forces of any state and are the determining factor in achieving success in war or armed conflict. Despite the rapid development of anti-tank weapons and the decrease in survivability on the battlefield, main battle tanks remain one of the decisive means of modern combined arms combat, which is characterized by dynamism, saturation and speed. They provide the combat stability of their own forces in defense and advance during the offensive, destroy enemy armored vehicles, fire points and living forces. A comparative analysis of the main characteristics of modern combat tanks, the advantages and disadvantages of various types of vehicles of foreign and domestic production, used by the Armed Forces of Ukraine for the defense of the state and countering the aggression of Russia against Ukraine, in order to improve the effectiveness of their use in different conditions of combat. Western models of modern tanks and the Ukrainian tank "Oplot" in some significant combat characteristics prevail over the modern Russian tank T-90, in particular: in the power of the engine and its reliability of operation (engine overheating and failure); in the effectiveness of optoelectronic counteraction to optical enemy means; in the effectiveness of dynamic protection and countering modern weapons; in the perfection of the fire control system; in the sufficiency of the armor of the machine; in the effectiveness of actions in urban conditions. Keywords: war, battle tank, tactical and technical characteristics, effectiveness, comparative analysis

Study of Properties and Structural Functional Group of Blending Low and High Boiling Point Fuel: The Case of Ethanol with Fuel

For numerous decades, diesel fuel has served as the primary source of energy for diesel engines. For optimal performance, these engines are designed to withstand a high flammability threshold. Diesel fuel is therefore the preferable option for refueling military combat vehicles, particularly battle tanks. Concerns have been expressed regarding the use of diesel fuel due to its potential contribution to environmental pollution; emissions from combustion include NO2, NO, CO, SO2, and particulate matter. To reduce these emissions, diesel fuel must be blended with another substance. To reduce emissions, ethanol incorporation is a potential solution. A previous study demonstrated that combining fuels with high and low boiling points can enhance performance. Mixing ethanol, which has a low boiling point, with biodiesel/diesel fuel and fuel with a high boiling point can produce a superior fuel. Analyzing the characteristics of the fuels produced by merging ethanol with diesel fuel and biodiesel is crucial. This analysis aids in the comprehension of the fuel's physical properties prior to its use in a diesel engine. In this investigation, Indonesian diesel fuel and biodiesel standards are blended with ethanol at 10%, 25%, and 35% (volume) blending ratios. In addition to utilizing FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) for analysis, the objective of this study is to determine the combustion properties of a blend of biodiesel, diesel fuel, and ethanol. Using the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) D method, fuel properties such as density, viscosity, cetane index, and distillations are analyzed. The results indicate that increasing the proportion of ethanol in diesel fuel and biodiesel reduces viscosity and density. By integrating ethanol, which has a lower density and viscosity than diesel fuel and biodiesel alone, the fuel properties can be improved. A perfect blend of ethanol, diesel fuel, and biodiesel can increase the quality of fuel, thereby enhancing diesel engine combustion.

Deep learning framework-based 3D shape reconstruction of tanks from a single RGB image

In recent times, complicated three-dimensional shape reconstruction from a single RGB image has become a crucial technology in many industries such as Automotive, Healthcare, and Military. It is particularly challenging to reconstruct the complex shape of a military tank. Former methods infer 3D information from 2D images via shape deformation from ellipsoids, which has the problems of local adhesion, uneven surfaces, and distortion of the structure. This study introduces a new single-view 3D shape reconstruction (SVSR) framework with multi-scale feature extraction that splits shape reconstruction into three tasks—camera parameter prediction, initial shape construction, and deformation prediction. The shape-initialization module provides a variable initial shape by predicting the stretch and displacement parameters of each geometric component based on their topological relationships. The shape-deformation module predicts the directional deformation of each vertex. These two modules are dedicated separately to avoid shape adhesion and improve the local detail performance. Silhouette images of the tank’s overall shape and local geometric components are employed to eliminate the impact of component shielding and avoid structural distortion via both pixel loss and perceptual loss. Experiments on the main battle tank dataset demonstrate that our method can predict complicated 3D shapes with a low Chamfer distance value (0.0017). Our approach outperforms the other state-of-the-art methods in terms of Chamfer distance and F-score with at least a 10% improvement, with more realistic overall contours and part details. It has huge application prospects in dealing with other complex shape predictions by modifying the shape-initialization module.

TRANSLATION TRANSFORMATIONS IN GERMAN SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TEXTS ON MODIFICATIONS OF THE MAIN BATTLE TANK OF THE ARMED FORCES OF GERMANY LEOPARD 1 AND LEOPARD 2A7+

The article analyzes the translation techniques used in the translation of scientific and technical texts of military subjects. Lexical-semantic and syntactic translation transformations have been identified and characterized. In the context of the study, an analysis of German-language scientific and technical texts on modifications of the main battle tank of the German Armed Forces, Leopard 1 and Leopard 2A7 + has been carried out. It is noted that when translating military texts, the target text should be as close as possible to the original and convey the lexical meaning of the word as accurately as possible, in turn, the translator should have not only a terminological minimum, but also background knowledge. Transformations that help to preserve the features of the author’s style with the appropriate reproduction of the content have been considered. These methods, according to the international classification, cover: 1) transliteration and transcription, tracing and selection of various variants for replacement; 2) detalization and generalization; 3) the introduction of new words or omission of old concepts; 4) integral-situational transformation (replacement). Most translation methods are aimed at lexical-semantic transformations. The use of these methods is intended to provide in a certain context a greater degree of adequacy of translation. This is how it is possible to approximate the norms of compatibility and avoid foreign words and word combinations. It is noted that an effective translation tool is a combination of several translation techniques, among which there are morphological-categorical replacement, selection of Ukrainian equivalents and syntactic transformations.

Trafficability Study of Full-Scale Geosynthetic Portable Road Building System

This study describes the full-scale traffic evaluation of a prototype submersible matting system (SUBMAT) at a test site on the U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center’s campus in Vicksburg, MS. The SUBMAT prototype was designed to bridge the gap between high- and low-tide at a beach interface to enable 24-h vehicle offloading operations at an expeditionary watercraft landing site. This unique system is made from common geotextile materials, is filled with indigenous sand using simple commercially available pumps, and creates a robust driving surface. The results of the study showed that the SUBMAT system was able to sustain an accumulation of 1,000 Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement, 350 Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck, and over 150 M1A1 main battle tank passes without experiencing any significant damage. The ease of deployment, relatively low cost, and trafficability results could make the SUBMAT a suitable candidate for expedient low-volume roads in austere environments such as stream beds, low-water crossings, recently flooded or flood prone areas, and areas with weak soil.

Electric Hybrid Powertrain for Armored Vehicles

The performance of modern, new generation-armored vehicles would greatly benefit from overall engineering, optimization, and integration techniques of advanced diesel engines-electrified transmissions. Modern axial flux electric motors and controllers are perfectly able to replace the classical automatic gearbox and complex steering system of traditional Main Battle Tanks. This study shows a possible design of a serial hybrid electric power pack for very heavy tanks with a weight well over 50 tons. The result is a hybrid power system that improves the overall performance of armored vehicles off-road and on-road, improving the acceleration and the smoothness of the ride. In addition, fuel consumption will be reduced because the internal combustion engine operates at fixed rpm. The electric motors will outperform the traditional engines due to their very high torque output even at “zero speed”. The weight of a hybrid system has also been calculated. In fact, in many cases, it is possible to use all off-the-shelf components. The on-board diagnosis of the subsystems in the hybrid powertrain makes it possible to achieve a Time Between Overhaul (TBO) of 4500 h with a failure probability inferior to one in 10,000.

Demand Forecasting of Spare Parts Using Artificial Intelligence: A Case Study of K-X Tanks

The proportion of the inventory range associated with spare parts is often considered in the industrial context. Therefore, even minor improvements in forecasting the demand for spare parts can lead to substantial cost savings. Despite notable research efforts, demand forecasting remains challenging, especially in areas with irregular demand patterns, such as military logistics. Thus, an advanced model for accurately forecasting this demand was developed in this study. The K-X tank is one of the Republic of Korea Army’s third generation main battle tanks. Data about the spare part consumption of 1,053,422 transactional data points stored in a military logistics management system were obtained. Demand forecasting classification models were developed to exploit machine learning, stacked generalization, and time series as baseline methods. Additionally, various stacked generalizations were established in spare part demand forecasting. The results demonstrated that a suitable selection of methods could help enhance the performance of the forecasting models in this domain.

Concept for classification of armoured infantry fighting vehicles by generations

Several foreign and domestic experts have already made the classifi- cation of main battle tanks and several theories have been developed for the establishment of generational boundaries; however, these gen- erational boundaries have not yet been established for the other two important and nowadays increasingly important subcategories of ar- moured fighting vehicles like: armoured infantry fighting vehicles and armoured personnel carriers. In this article I would like to attempt to draw these boundaries, based on which the armoured fighting vehicles of the past decades can be categorized.

Germany and the future of German heavy weapons supplies to Ukraine

The features of decision making in the Federal Republic of Germany on the supply of battle tanks to Ukraine are considered. Implementation of this decision until mid-February 2023 was analyzed. The factors that can influence Germany's position on the issue of sending new types of heavy weapons are identified and characterized. A hypothesis was formulated according to which Germany, most likely, will not supply new types of heavy weapons. This refusal to expand the range of supplies will hardly lead to reduction in supply of previously agreed types of weapons.

Failure Mechanism of the Fire Control Computer CPU Board inside the Tank under Transient Shock: Finite Element Simulations and Experimental Studies.

The electronic components inside a main battle tank (MBT) are the key components for the tank to exert its combat effectiveness. However, breakdown of the inner electronic components can easily occur inside the MBT due to the strong transient shock and large vibration during artillery fire. As a typical key electronic component inside an MBT, the fault mechanism and fault patterns of the CPU board of the fire control computer (FCC) are discussed through numerical simulation and experimental research. An explicit nonlinear dynamic analysis is performed to study the vibration features and fault mechanism under instantaneous shock load. By using finite element modal analysis, the first six nature frequencies of the CPU board are calculated. Meanwhile, curves of stress–frequency and strain–frequency of the CPU board under different harmonic loads are obtained, which are applied to further identify the peak response of the structure. Validation of the finite element model and simulation results are performed by comparing those obtained from the modal with experiments. Based on the dynamic simulation and experimental analysis, fault patterns of CPU board are discussed, and some optimization suggestions were proposed. The results shown in this work can provide a potential technical basis and reference for the optimization design of the electronic components that are commonly used in the modern weapon equipment and wartime support.

A study on the effectiveness of explosive reactive armour against the penetration of long-rod projectiles

The effect of explosive reactive armour (ERA) on the penetration of a long-rod projectile is investigated using computational techniques. This area of research is especially relevant to main battle tanks as a large portion of them utilise ERA which is effective against both kinetic and chemical munitions. The ERA package consists of steel flyer plates sandwiched between an explosive layer that detonates on projectile impact. The influence of the stand-off distance and detonation delay and variation of the angle of impact is assessed to determine the overall effectiveness of the ERA package. The analysis presented in this study allows for a better understanding of impact dynamics and can be used in the development and optimisation of ERA as well as projectiles designed to defeat it.

Robust stabilizing control for oscillatory base manipulators by implicit Lyapunov method

Oscillatory base manipulator (OBM) is a kind of mechanical system suffering from unexpected base oscillations. The oscillations affect tremendously system stability. Various control methods have been explored, but most of them require measurement or prediction of the oscillations. This study is concerned with a novel OBM—the autoloader, which is used in modern, autonomous main battle tanks. The base oscillation of the autoloader is hard to be obtained in practice. Furthermore, control synthesis for autoloaders is complicated with intrinsic payload uncertainty and actuator saturation. To address these issues, a novel robust control scheme is proposed in this work relying on the implicit Lyapunov method. Moreover, a novel two-degree-of-freedom manipulator operating on a vibrating base is constructed to realize the proposed control. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study considering both control and hardware implementation for the OBM-like autoloaders. Simulation and experiment results demonstrate that, although without prior information of the base oscillation, the proposed controller exhibits good robustness against the base oscillation and payload uncertainty.