Bath Buildings Research Articles

Roman Water Transport: Pressure Lines

In Roman times long distance water transport was realized by means of aqueducts. Water was conveyed in mortared open channels with a downward slope from spring to destination. Also wooden channels and clay pipelines were applied. The Aqua Appia, the oldest aqueduct of Rome, was constructed in the third Century BCE. During the Pax Romana (second Century CE), a time of little political turmoil, prosperity greatly increased, almost every town acquiring one or more aqueducts to meet the rising demand from the growth of population, the increasing number of public and private bath buildings, and the higher luxury level in general. Until today over 1600 aqueducts have been described, Gallia (France) alone counting more than 300. Whenever a valley was judged to be too wide or too deep to be crossed by a bridge, pressure lines known as ‘inverted siphons’ or simply ‘siphons’ were employed. These closed conduits transported water across a valley according the principle of communicating vessels. About 80 classical siphons are presently known with one out of twenty aqueducts being equipped with a siphon. After an introductory note about aqueducts in general, this report treats the ancient pressure conduit systems with the technical problems encountered in design and function, the techniques that the ancient engineers applied to cope with these problems, and the texts of the Roman author Vitruvius on the subject. Reviewers noted that the report is rather long, and it is. Yet to understand the difficulties that the engineers of those days encountered in view of the materials available for their siphons (stone, ceramics, lead), many a hydraulic aspect will be discussed. Aspects that for the modern hydraulic engineer may be common knowledge and of minor importance when constructing pressure lines, in view of modern construction materials. It was different in Vitruvius’s days.

Customer satisfaction in post-socialist Spas: a case study of Budapest, City of Spas

ABSTRACT This paper examines spa developments in post-socialist countries, especially the process of adapting facilities to attract and accommodate commercial (non-state funded) guests and international tourists. This includes the development of infrastructure, the upgrading and regeneration of facilities, the improvement of service quality and the enhancement of visitor experiences and customer satisfaction. The research in this paper draws on customer satisfaction and service quality theory from the hospitality sector in order to consider how far spas are meeting international standards and to make recommendations for future improvements. Online review data was analysed from one of the most popular spas in Budapest, Hungary to highlight issues relating to tourist satisfaction and experience. Despite considerable investment in the thermal bath buildings and facilities as part of a national programme of regeneration, several issues relating to service quality still need to be addressed. This represents a common challenge for the whole post-socialist region, so the work aims to identify future directions for spas in this region in their transition from domestic, therapeutic medical baths to international, wellness spas.

Termas públicas en la Hispania de época antonina: una aproximación a su secuencia evolutiva.

In this work we will review briefly the archaeological evidence of public bath buildings dated in the second century belonging to a score of Hispania’s urban centres. On the basis of this documentation, we would like to offer a first approach to the characteristic features of the public thermal buildings of that time in Hispania.

Interior plastering of Ottoman bath buildings

Ottoman baths were peculiar buildings with their function in community life, architectural characteristics and material use. Their interior spaces were exposed to high humidity and temperatures that made the building structure vulnerable to physical, chemical, physicochemical and biological degradations. Plasters used on the interior wall surfaces were the most important agents to protect the structure from deterioration and provide durability. This study aims to exhibit the plaster characteristics of Çinili Bath in İstanbul which was an outstanding example of Ottoman baths and built by Great Architect Sinan. Basic physical properties, raw material compositions, mineralogical, microstructural and hydraulic properties of original brick-lime plasters called as horasan (khorasan) plasters used on the walls were determined by XRF, XRD, SEM-EDS and TGA. Multilayered plaster application together with the use of glazed tiles were observed on the wall surfaces of all interior spaces. The plasters were produced from pure lime and pozzolanic crushed brick or tile aggregates and hydraulic because of the pozzolanic properties of aggregates. They are stiff, compact and durable in hot and humid conditions of bath buildings due to their self-healing properties and the formation of calcium silicate hydrates and calcium aluminate hydrates at the lime-brick interfaces and in the pores of the pozzolanic brick aggregates by the reaction of lime. Characteristics of brick aggregates were compared with the construction bricks used in the building. Their chemical and mineralogical compositions revealed that the aggregates had not been produced from construction bricks. All the results indicated that brick-lime plasters were the most suitable materials for bath buildings to protect the structure from the effect of water.

An Elusive Legacy: The Rediscovery of Roman Baths in Eighteenth-Century Britain

ABSTRACTIn this paper, I investigate how eighteenth-century antiquarians engaged with the remains of Roman bath buildings in Britain and discuss their multifaceted attitude towards the ancient practice of bathing, with a focus on the city of Bath. I also examine the interests and priorities of Georgian scholars in studying Roman baths and their structure, highlighting their sometimes uncritical use of Classical sources and tracking the origins of their misconceptions regarding the components and function of these facilities. Finally, I briefly address the elusive socio-cultural legacy of Roman baths and bathing in eighteenth-century Britain, stressing influences and differences in practice and architecture.

An Essay In Adaptive Reuse: The Case of Bergama Küplü Hammam

Bergama is an important settlement center which have different civilizations. Today, it comes forward with especially the cultural heritage of Antiquity but there is an important heritage which has Ottoman period’s impress too. The works which reflect to aqua culture effectuate a part of that heritage. Especially Turkish bath buildings have an important place to remind and sustain that culture. The aim of this study is making an essay in adaptive reuse via Kuplu Hammam which is an important representative of Ottoman aqua culture in the urban memory. In this sense, Kuplu Hammam will be examined in the context of its characteristic properties and it will be evaluated as spatial and volumetric flow to provide its characteristic properties’ sustainability. In this context, it is intended to develop some acceptable strategies for the building’s adaptive reuse. Thus, this study will contribute for the characteristic properties of the building to keeping alive them with protection and sustain their place in urban memory.

Hoffinger și Berzovia. Contribuții habsburgice la cercetarea arheologică a ruinelor romane din Banat / Hoffinger and Berzovia. Habsburg contributions to the archaeological research of Roman ruins in Banat

The Legion Camp from Berzovia is the only one of its kind in Banat and its archaeological research is very difficult, the site being completely covered today by the modern human settlement. But it was not always so! An article published more than 200 years ago, in a cultural almanac (Neues Ungrisches Magazin) in Bratislava, in the Habsburg Empire, reveals with remarkable details how the Habsburgs identified the ruins of the imposing roman fort and its inner buildings and annexes. At that time the village was called Jidovin and covered only a small part of the southern area of the fortification. The year 1783 seems to have marked the beginning of the systematic research of the archaeological site, on the surface of which the walls were visible in many places over 1 meter high, the archaeological excavations being led by the k.u.k. mining engineer von Braun from Bocsa and were supervised by Hoffinger – the one who also published them – a representative of the Oraviţa Imperial Upper Mining Office.The significance of this text may not be so great if information that does not match the real situation in the field does not persist in the literature. For the author of the present article it is very clear that the Romanian archeologist who dealt with Berzovia did not have access to this text and nobody tried to republic it completely. The information provided by Hoffinger and von Braun throws another light on the stratigraphic situation in the castle and even changes our knowledge about the size of the fortification. The text is accompanied by a situation plan and drawing profiles through the unveiled ruins, with very interesting details. It is worth mentioning the existence in Berzovia (Jidovin) of two balneary / thermae edifices, with underfloor heating system, which were completely unveiled by the excavation of the Habsburgs. Unfortunately, the Austrian report also reveals a sad reality of what followed the unveiling of the ruins, namely that the imperial administration reused the building material they had recovered from the Roman walls. Spelling was done systematically, the Austrians appreciating superlatively the quality of the stone and bricks resulting from the digging of the Roman ruins for their urban needs. For this reason, today there is a low chance of archaeologically identifying the existence of a Roman wall at Berzovia, at most its implanthole.The relevance of topographic sketches and measurements published by Hoffinger provides other important information that deserves a detailed analysis. Thus, at the moment, we are sure that the theory of Dumitru Protase, related to the existence of just one defensive system phase of the castrum made only from earth and wood, is denied by the text of the 18th century report and more real seems the succession of more phases offered by Alexandru Flutur, who explain us with stratigraphical arguments that the fortification had also a stone wall period in use before abandonment. Also from this german literary source we know that in Berzovia, during the functioning of the legion camp, there were two roman baths buildings, one extra muros and another one intra muros. The fortress bathrooms seems to be a likely annex of the praetorium, the commander house and presenting in one of the chambers the traces of a roman mosaic. All the construction bricks used by the bath buildings were stamped with the sign of Leg (io) IIII F (lavia) F (elix)

Spatial and Visual configurational properties of Traditional Bath Buildings in Islamic cities

Recently, researches focused upon traditional public bath buildings (Hammams) in Islamic cities, aiming maintenance and rehabilitation of those buildings that faced negligence due to function miss. Hammam buildings historically had possessed significant social and environmental role, as well as distinguishing them as a unique Architectural type. The literature review showed lack of concentration upon syntactical properties of the spatial and visual configuration of Hammam buildings.Accordingly, this paper aims to describe these properties. To attain this, comparative analysis methodology has been adopted between local Baths, and those of other cultures. A number of findings were obtained, explaining spatial and visual properties of Islamic traditional public baths.

Characteristics of bricks used in the domes of some historic bath buildings

In this study, characteristics of bricks used in the domes of some historic bath buildings dated to 15th century in Izmir were determined in order to indicate the properties of repair bricks that will be used in the conservation works of the domes. For this purpose, their basic physical properties, elemental and mineralogical compositions, firing temperatures and microstructural properties were determined by using XRF, XRD, SEM-EDS and TGA analysis. Analysis results indicated that the bricks are of low density, high porosity and were produced from raw materials containing low amounts of calcium poor clays fired at low temperatures (< 900 °C). They are mainly consisted of small pores with r < 5 μm that make the bricks more susceptible to salt crystallization and freeze-thaw cycles. Although the bricks were fired at low temperatures and susceptible to salt crystallization and freeze thaw cycles, the structural systems of the domes remained without losing their integrity due to the moderate climatic conditions of Izmir. Repair bricks that will be used in the conservation works of the domes should be compatible with the original ones and produced from calcium poor clays by firing at low temperatures.

Les aryballes de verre en Narbonnaise, témoins de la circulation des huiles corporelles (fin du Ier ap. J.‑C. - IIIe s.).

Glass aryballos found in Narbonensis, dated between the end of the 1st century AD and the 3rd century AD, mainly come from harbour dumps and bath buildings. Typology, chronology and provenience of these artefacts are successively discussed. This documentation shows that perfumed oils were commercialised throughout the Western Mediterranean at a larger scale than previously assumed. The diversity of the proveniences observed within the Narbonensis finds (Northern provinces, Middle-East, Egypt) has no parallel elsewhere in the Western regions, except on the Croatian coastline. Nevertheless, this statement is perhaps due to a lesser development of the glass studies.

Energy performance of traditional bath buildings

This paper presents the results of a recent research effort to collect and analyze data pertaining to traditional bath buildings (“hammams”) in Egypt, Turkey, Morocco, Syria, and Algeria. Thereby, the energy performance of and the thermal comfort conditions in five such buildings were studied. Moreover, empirically calibrated building performance simulation models of a number of objects were generated in order to predict the consequences of alternative thermal retrofit measures. The results provide the opportunity for an objective assessment of the actual energy and indoor environmental performance of these buildings.

Performance evaluation of traditional bath buildings via empirically tested simulation models

In a recent research effort, we studied the performance of a certain class of traditional buildings in Egypt, Turkey, Morocco, Syria, and Algeria, namely public baths (‘hammams’). Over a period of 1 year, indoor and outdoor climate data as well as visual and acoustical performance information was collected for a selected number of these buildings. To further explore indoor environmental conditions, the monitored data were used to calibrate digital performance simulation models of a number of the objects studied. Specifically, thermal performance simulation models were generated for three hammams in Egypt, Turkey, and Algeria. Likewise, acoustical performance simulation models were generated for three baths in Algeria. These calibrated thermal and acoustical simulation models were shown to reliably reproduce measurements. Thus, they could be parametrically applied to evaluate alternative options for the renovation, restoration, reuse, and adaptation of these buildings.

Labraunda 2009. A preliminary report on the Swedish excavations

The 2009 campaign in Labraunda accomplished three goals: the termination of the excavations in the Byzantine fort on the Acropolis and in the Late Roman Tetraconch and the complete excavation of the impressive marble chamber tomb along the Sacred Way. In the Acropolis Fortress, evidence was found to support the military character of the Byzantine establishment: the rooms along the fortification wall were paved and had a rectangular shape, suggesting defensive rooms. In these rooms sling stones were found. Structures dating from the Hekatomnid period were further investigated this year, and a well cut into the gneiss bedrock was excavated. In the Tetraconch, the north apse was excavated down to bedrock and a coin from Constantius II (348–357/8) suggests an ante quem dating for this unique and sophisticated structure. The geophysical investigations indicated that a church is located on the terrace below the Tetraconch and a first sondage was conducted here. The large marble chamber tomb was completely excavated and emptied of its content. Small pieces of pottery indicate a date in the middle of the fourth century BC. The extensive geophysical survey was carried out at five different areas around the Sanctuary, in order to achieve a better picture of the entire Sanctuary, as the early excavations had involved only its central part. Evidence for several previously unknown structures came to light: possibly a temple on the East Stoa terrace and further bath buildings at the East Bath, as well as several unexcavated tombs.

Beiträge zur frühbyzantinischen Profanarchitektur aus Hadrianupolis – Blütezeit unter Kaiser Iustinian I

Abstract Hadrianoupolis lies on the principal western route from the Central Anatolian Plain through the mountains to Bartın and the Black Sea, 3 km west of the modern town of Eskipazar, near Karabük, in Roman Paphlagonia. It was a small but important site which controlled this major route and dominated a rich agricultural, especially vinicultural, enclave. In 2003 the local Archaeological Museum of Ereğli began a small-scale salvage excavation of the newly discovered main church of Hadrianoupolis, known as “Early Byzantine Church B”, situated in the centre of the ancient city. Only the floor and foundation levels are preserved. The church was erected probably in the early 6th century AD and may have still been in use as late as the 7th century. The most important discoveries at Church B were the floor mosaics which show personifications of four Biblical rivers: Euphrates, Tigris, Phison and Geon. Animals, floral and geometric designs, and an extensive inscription are also represented. In 2006 archaeological excavations were begun in Hadrianoupolis by a team from the Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, under the direction of Dr Ergün Laflı. As a result of our 2005 surveys, it has now been confirmed that Hadrianoupolis lay indeed on the site of modern Eskipazar, with finds dating from the 1st century B.C. to the 8th century A.D. It also was determined that the core of the ancient city extended as far as the modern village of Budaklar and the surrounding districts of Hacı Ahmetler, Çaylı and Eleler, along the Eskipazar-Mengen highway for 8 km east-west and 3 km north-south. The chora of Hadrianoupolis is much more extensive in size. The field surveys in 2005 identified the remains of at least 24 buildings at the site. Among them are two bath buildings of the Late Roman period, two Early Byzantine churches, a fortified structure of the Byzantine period, a theatre (?), a vaulted building, a domed building and some domestic buildings with mosaic floors. In 2006 trenches were opened to investigate two of the best preserved of these buildings: Bath A and Early Byzantine Church A. In 2007 “Bath A”, “Bath B”, a Late Roman villa, an absidal Early Byzantine building, as well as two Roman monumental rock-cut graves, were excavated. The 2006–2007 campaigns have established that Hadrianoupolis was a fortified regional centre during the late Roman and early Byzantine period (5th–7th centuries), when it can easily be defined as a “polis” with civic buildings and a fairly large urban population, as well as an extensive agrarian rural population. Most of the visible surface remains belong to this period.

The use of brick–lime plasters and their relevance to climatic conditions of historic bath buildings

Brick–lime mortars and plasters have been widely used as water-proof materials in aqueducts, bridges and cisterns since early Hellenistic time. In this study, the characteristics of brick–lime plasters used in some Ottoman bath buildings were investigated in order to understand their relevance as plasters in hot and humid environmental conditions of the baths. For this purpose, basic physical properties, raw material compositions, mineralogical, microstructural and hydraulic properties of brick–lime plasters of some historic bath buildings in İzmir (Turkey) were determined by XRD, SEM-EDX, AFM and chemical analyses. The results indicated that their survival without loosing their strength and adhesion in hot and humid conditions of the baths was explained by their hydraulic characters due to the consciously use of porous and pozzolanic crushed bricks as aggregate in the manufacturing of plasters.

AN INQUIRY INTO THE THERMAL, ACOUSTICAL, AND VISUAL ASPECTS OF INDOOR ENVIRONMENT IN TRADITIONAL HAMMĀMS

In the present paper, the authors focus on the indoor environmental performance of traditional Islamic hammām (bath) buildings. In the course of a longterm monitoring effort within the framework of an EU funded project (HAMMAM, 2008), data on indoor environmental (thermal) conditions and outdoor microclimatic conditions in the immediate vicinity of five traditional hammāms located in Egypt, Turkey, Morocco, Syria, and Algeria was collected. Moreover, short-term visual (lighting) and acoustical measurements were performed in a number of these buildings. The monitoring results provide the opportunity for an objective assessment of the actual performance of these buildings and evaluation of their strengths and weaknesses. In addition to evaluation and interpretation of indoor environmental conditions, the authors also used the monitored data to calibrate digital performance simulation models of the objects studied. These calibrated models of the hammāms can be applied to predict the consequences of alternative options for their renovation, restoration, reuse, and adaptation.

Measurement and simulation of room acoustics parameters in traditional and modern bath buildings

This paper presents the results of a number of case studies concerning measurement and simulation of room acoustical parameters in both historical and contemporary instances of bath spaces. Historical instances of such spaces are, in our study, traditional hammam (bath) buildings in Mediterranean and north-African countries (Algeria, Morocco, Syria). Modern instances include a modern hammam, a spa, and an indoor swimming pool in central Europe (Austria). The analysis is based on data obtained from measurements and simulations of pertinent indicators of room acoustic quality in such spaces. The results of the analysis permit the identification of certain salient features of room acoustics in highly humid spaces and corresponding technical challenges (e.g., excessive reverberation and high noise exposure). Moreover, the results allow for the statistically grounded estimation of uncertainties in simulation of room acoustics in architectural spaces.

Galerius, Gamzigrad, and the Fifth Macedonian legion

The future emperor Galerius was born in a small village in the province of Dacia Ripensis around A.D. 258. His mother's name was Romula. When he was confirmed as a member of the tetrarchy he undertook a building programme in his native village, transforming it into a monumental fortified palace. To honour his mother he gave it a new name,Felix Romuliana. In 311, before this ambitious programme was complete, he died and was buried and deified there.Romulianahas been securely identified through epigraphic evidence with the impressive remains that exist near modern Gamzigrad (NE Serbia). This fortified palace was built in two phases: first came a fortification wall with 16 small rectangular or octagonal towers, dated in the first five years of the 4th c; then inc.305 this defensive system was partly demolished and a new, bigger fortification wall, strengthened by 20 huge, bastion-like towers (16-, 12- or 10-sided) was erected on the outside, encompassing and enlarging the original plan. This wall has been dated to 306-311. Inside the walls were erected two temples with altars, two palace complexes, a bath, a horreum, and auxiliary buildings. On a low ridge of hills east of the fortified palace two large consecration mounds and two mausolea were excavated in 1993. From the finds as well as the overall nature of the buildings at Romuliana, it was determined that this was where Galerius and his mother were buried and deified in the first years of the 4th c.

Windows, Baths, and Solar Energy in the Roman Empire

Windows were a prominent feature of Roman architecture and were especially important in the magnificent bath buildings of the Roman Empire. A growing literature attests to the Romans' use of solar energy in heating these large buildings. Edwin Thatcher claimed in 1956 that the windows in such baths did not require glazing. In this paper I refute this claim, drawing on modern ideas about solar energy, heat transfer, human comfort, and the effect of glazed windows to analyze one room in the Forum Baths at Ostia. This analysis is compared with that of Thatcher for the same room. In window size and solar orientation, this room is typical of Roman baths in many parts of the empire. The solar science and technology of today is thus compared with that of the Romans and with that of Thatcher's day.

Terracotta Spacer Pins in Lycian Bath Buildings

A puzzling feature of a number of Lycian bath buildings is the array of holes cut in their walls at intervals of about 0·5 × 0·5 m. In size they are often about 0·12 × 0·12 m. × 0·06 m. deep, and so too large for the normal iron spikes which hold marble veneers or other wall facings in place. A chance find made during the course of the survey of Balboura in 1986 provides an explanation for these holes; they were to take spool-headed terracotta spacer pins which in turn held a series of large flat tiles with a space behind for the circulation of hot air from the hypocaust (Fig. 4), so providing the same effect as the better known tubuli and tegulae mammatae.