Basin Countries Research Articles

Perceptions regarding Distance Learning in Higher Education, Smoothing the Transition

This paper presents the perceptions on distance learning approaches, assessed through an online survey, using experimental design of ideas (Mind Genomics). Students and professors of higher education institutions who had not yet experienced distance learning before COVID-19 pandemic period participated in the study. The participants belong to the universities located in Mediterranean basin, e.g., Albania, Italy, Morocco, Algeria and few African countries. Results suggest that distance learning will shift many of the responsibilities formerly on the professors to those of the students. The data suggests the need for emotional support during this transition, specifically to maintain interaction among students and professor as well as among students themselves in distance learning platforms as in traditional classrooms. The study shows that the effectiveness and the interactivity of this new paradigm are very important and any further developments of distance learning should provide strong support for these components. The position of the professor is indispensable as the guide to the entire process, suggesting that at least at the time of this writing (2020) distance learning approach is perceived only to be an intermittent complementary path to in-person interactions.

A further investigation of the leishmaniosis outbreak in Madrid (Spain): low-infectivity phenotype of the Leishmania infantum BOS1FL1 isolate to establish infection in canine cells

Human leishmaniosis caused by Leishmania infantum is a zoonotic disease, with dogs as the main reservoir in Mediterranean Basin countries. The largest European outbreak of human leishmaniosis declared in the southwestern Madrid region (Spain) is characterized by unusual epidemiological and clinical features, such as the emergence of new wild reservoirs (hares and rabbits), whereas the seroprevalence, infection, and severity of canine leishmaniosis have not substantially changed since the first studies conducted in Madrid before the outbreak. Previous studies reported that L. infantum isolates from the Madrid leishmaniosis focus displayed elevated virulence in in vivo models of infection and increased infectivity in murine target cells. With the aim of studying whether changes in the host-parasite interaction and virulence profile have developed, we first assessed the behaviour of one circulating isolate of the outbreak, IPER/ES/2012/BOS1FL1 (BOS1FL1), compared to that of a well-characterized strain from canine leishmaniosis, MCAN/ES/1996/BCN150 (BCN150), in terms of infection capacity (percentage of infected cells, representing infectivity, and number of amastigotes per infected cell, representing the intensity of infection) in canine monocytes and macrophages. BCN150 displayed significantly higher infectivity (76.82 ± 4.40 vs 38.58 ± 2.19; P < 0.0001) and intensity of infection (3.64 ± 0.13 vs 1.83 ± 0.12; P < 0.0001) than BOS1FL1 when interacting with canine cells. Our ROS induction results did not differ significantly between the two isolates or with the responses previously described for other L. infantum isolates. Paradoxically, increased resilience to hydrogen peroxide exposure was observed for BOS1FL1 (% viability 40.62 ± 5.54 vs 26.37 ± 2.93; P = 0.039). Finally, we demonstrated that a decreased intracellular load of BOS1FL1 was associated with increased IFN-γ (261.21 ± 26.29 vs 69.80 ± 9.02; P = 0.0151) and decreased IL-10 production (165.06 ± 23.87 vs 264.41 ± 30.58; P = 0.0002). In this study, we provide the first detailed insight into the differences between the isolate BOS1FL1 from the outbreak in Madrid and the well-characterized strain BCN150 MON-1 obtained from a dog in their response to interacting with canine cells. However, further studies are necessary to shed light on the immune mechanisms resulting in BOS1FL1 exhibiting less virulent behaviour in canine cells than in cells derived from other host species.

Systematic review and meta-analysis of seroprevalence studies of West Nile virus in equids in Europe between 2001 and 2018.

There is some evidence that West Nile virus (WNV), which causes encephalomyelitis in equids, is an emerging disease in Europe. The aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis to analyse seroprevalence studies of WNV in equids in European countries between 2001 and 2018. Two electronic databases, PubMed and Scopus, were searched for relevant publications published from 2001 to 2018 using predetermined keywords. A total of 1,484 papers were initially found. After applying the eligibility criteria, 39 papers were finally included in the systematic review. Analysis of 28,089 equids from 16 European countries revealed a pooled seroprevalence of 8% (95% CI 5%-12%, p<.001, I2 =99.3%) in Europe. The pooled seroprevalence was slightly higher in Mediterranean basin countries than other countries and when calculated for samples collected between 2001 and 2009 compared to 2010 to 2018. Differences in study design (e.g. sampling associated with recent outbreaks of WNV) contributed to a high degree of variability among studies. Further studies with harmonized study design and reporting of the results are recommended to better estimate and monitor European seroprevalence of WNV in equids.

Fair and Reasonable Allocation of Trans-Boundary Water Resources Based on an Asymmetric Nash Negotiation Model from the Satisfaction Perspective: A Case Study for the Lancang-Mekong River Bain.

The issue of trans-boundary water conflict has become an important factor affecting the relations between basin countries. The key to solve the current conflict problem is to realize the fair and reasonable allocation of trans-boundary water resources. Based on the satisfaction perspective, we developed an asymmetric Nash negotiation model to obtain an optimal and feasible allocation scheme for the trans-boundary water resources. Firstly, based on the two international water laws, we analyzed the influencing factors including water demand differences, resource endowment differences, and water efficiency differences, and by combing with the flexible weight constraint, we built the fair and reasonable allocation pattern for trans-boundary water resources. Secondly, under the constraint of the allocation pattern, we determined the ideal negotiation scheme of each basin country by considering their selection preference. Thirdly, we built a satisfaction degree function and established an asymmetric Nash negotiation model. This is used to build a fair negotiation mechanism among basin countries, and the allocation scheme after negotiation is regarded as the optimal allocation scheme. Lastly, we took the Lancang–Mekong river basin as an example. For this example, the results indicate the following: (1) after considering multiple factors comprehensively, China and Thailand obtained a higher proportion of trans-boundary water resource quota under different preference scenarios, while Myanmar obtained a lower proportion of trans-boundary water resource quota; (2) taking each basin country as the negotiation agent, the optimal allocation scheme with the introduction of fair negotiation mechanism has a higher degree of satisfaction, with an average of over 87.19%, which is more stable and easy to be accepted by all basin countries; (3) from the perspective of the change rate and the average satisfaction of the basin countries, the optimal allocation scheme under the resource endowment preference scenario obtained the highest satisfaction among basin countries. This study aims to improve the practicability and acceptability of trans-boundary water resources allocation, thus providing technical support for reducing trans-boundary water resources conflicts.

Trade relations analysis between Egypt and the Nile Basin countries Using the Gravity model

The study aims to analyze the trade relations between Egypt and the Nile Basin countries, using the econometric method by gravity model to measure the determinants of trade intensity between Egypt and the Nile Basin countries. The study also relies on the environmental analysis to determine the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of Egyptian trade relations with the Nile Basin countries. The study indicates that there is a positive relationship between the gross domestic product of Egypt and the Nile Basin countries with the trade intensity index between Egypt and the Nile Basin countries. The study concludes that there is a gap between the actual trade between Egypt and the Nile Basin countries and the hopes placed on it, and for reducing this gap requires more efforts. The intra-trade must be supported and strengthened through the development of infrastructure in the fields of transportation, energy, communications and information technology, as well as increased coordination between Nile Basin Countries in order to unify the regulations and rules governing the movement of trade.

Systemic failures in north–south climate change knowledge transfer: a case study of the Congo Basin

ABSTRACT Climate change cooperation projects in the Congo Basin are often rooted in a paradigm based on scientific knowledge transfer between north and south. Their outputs, however, have often been criticized by both policymakers and scientists in Central African countries who claim that the projects are not contributing to the development of the Congo Basin. This study used the Research-Integration-Utilization framework to identify and document how the combination of power imbalances and misalignment of actors’ incentives undermined the capacity building potential of a large, multi-year north–south knowledge transfer project. Using data from documents, interviews and participant observation, we found that, under the umbrella of a development project, experts from developed countries pushed the specific aims of research toward global modelling instead of focusing on local impacts on land use in the Congo Basin, which were the primary concerns of stakeholders in the area. Moreover, both the integration and utilization phases were undermined by the power imbalance and resulted in a product of little relevance or utility for Congo Basin countries. Key policy insights As currently conducted, north–south scientific climate change knowledge transfer is not substantially supporting either the development prospects or the capacity building needs of Congo Basin countries. The main cause of this problem lies in domination of the scientific climate change knowledge transfer process by power games, along with misalignment of actors’ incentives. Identifying the interests and agendas of all actors at the integration stage before the research stage would be a useful strategy for such projects moving forward.

Quantifying the United Nations’ Watercourse Convention Indicators to Inform Equitable Transboundary River Sharing: Application to the Nile River Basin

East African riparian countries have debated sharing Nile River water for centuries. To define a reasonable allocation of water to each country, the United Nations’ Watercourse Convention could be a key legal instrument. However, its applicability has been questioned given its overly generalized guidance and non-quantifiable factors. This study identified and evaluated appropriate indicators that best describe reasonable and equitable principles and factors detailed under Article 6 of the convention in order to allocate Nile River water among the states. Potential indicators (n = 75) were defined based on multiple sources that can address conflicting interests specific to this basin context. A questionnaire based on these indicators was developed and distributed to 215 prominent experts from five professional groups on five continents. To analyze the presence of agreements or disagreements within and outside of the basin, as well as differences across expert groups, a k-mean clustering analysis and statistical tests (ANOVA and t-test) were employed. The results imply agreement on 75% of the proposed indicators by all experts across all continents. However, a significant difference in identifying the importance and relevance of many indicators between experts from Egypt and other countries was evident. This study thus demonstrates how the UN watercourse convention principles can be quantified and applied to transboundary water allocation, and ideally lead to informed discourse between basin countries in conflict.

The aquaculture of acipenseriformes. Part 5. Dunabe Basin and Middle East

The history and contemporary state of global aquaculture of sturgeons and paddlefish are reviewed. 5th part is devoted to sturgeon breeding in the basin of Black sea (without countries of former USSR reviewed earlier) аnd in the Middle East. Six species of sturgeon once migrated in the Danube River and Turkish rivers Yeşilırmak, Kızılirmak and Sakarya for spawning: anadromous beluga Huso huso, Russian sturgeon Acipenser gueldenstaedtii, stellate sturgeon A.stellatus, European sturgeon A. sturio and the river resident ship sturgeon A. nudiventris and sterlet A. ruthenus. Sturgeons had played an important role in the history Black sea fisheries, but due to overexploitation, followed by extensive river regulations and deterioration of water quality decrease in their populations has led most of them to the verge of extinction. During the 20th Century, world demand for sturgeon meat and caviar has inflated the economic value of sturgeons so Danube basin countries and Turkey develop commercial aquaculture and conservational programs. As result of protective measures the limited natural spawning of beluga, Russian and stellate sturgeons and sterlet is preserved in Danube. In Sakarya River last spawning population of stellate sturgeon exists. These species and Siberian sturgeon are important objects of commercial aquaculture in all countries of Black sea basin. The leaders of commercial sturgeon farming in this region are Bulgaria and Israel. The sturgeon aquaculture of Hungary and Turkey developed rapidly. Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates are important importers of caviar. Saudi Arabia is large consumer of caviar and UAE is one of main re-exporter of caviar. Both Arab countries develop own sturgeon aquaculture.

Potential for Production of Biochar-Based Fertilizers from Olive Mill Waste in Mediterranean Basin Countries: An Initial Assessment for Spain, Tunisia, and Greece

Olive mill wastes continue to be a management challenge due to the large volumes produced, particularly due to their toxicity and impacts on the environment. Thermal conversion through pyrolysis or hydrothermal carbonization techniques can detoxify wastes while conserving nutrient contents. In this work, we produced up-to-date data on olive mill waste flows in Spain, Tunisia, and Greece and characterized representative samples in the laboratory. Assays of thermal conversion of olive mill wastewaters and solid wastes were also performed to understand biochar yields and final properties, and the total quantities of nutrients contained were estimated. Of particular note were the quantities of potassium in Tunisian wastewaters, representing 0.6% of the total mass and an annual flow of approximately 5000 t, and in the Spanish solid wastes, an average of 1.7% of the total mass is potassium, representing an annual flow of approximately 23,000 t. Concerning phosphorus, Spanish solid wastes had the highest contents (0.1%), double that of other countries’ wastes. Annually, olive mill wastes from the three countries are estimated to contain approximately 35 × 103 tons of potassium and 2.6 × 103 tons of phosphorus. With this resource converted to biochar, each year more than 700 km2 of soils could be enriched in 0.2% carbon with biochar at an application rate of 7 t ha−1.

Re-emergence of bluetongue virus serotype 4 in Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) and sympatric livestock in Spain, 2018-2019.

Between early October and mid-December 2018, mortalities were detected in Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) populations in southern Spain. In the same region and period, bluetongue virus (BTV) circulation was also reported in sentinel and clinically affected domestic ruminant herds. Molecular analyses confirmed BTV serotype 4 (BTV-4) infection in eight Iberian ibexes from six hunting areas, and in 46 domestic ruminants from seven herds in close proximity to affected hunting estates. Histopathological analyses revealed vascular changes in several organs, pneumonia, lymphoid depletion, inflammatory mononuclear cell infiltrate and fibrosis as the most frequently observed lesions in the affected Iberian ibexes. Epidemiological and laboratory results indicate that BTV-4 was the main aetiological agent involved in outbreaks detected in Iberian ibex populations during the study period. Sequence analyses indicated that the BTV-4 strain detected in Iberian ibex had high homology (99.4%-100%) with strains isolated in livestock during the same period, and with previous isolates (≥98.9%) from Spain and Mediterranean Basin countries. Further studies are warranted to determine the impact of BTV-4 on the health status of Iberian ibex populations after the outbreaks. The inclusion of this species in the surveillance programme may be useful for early detection of BTV, especially in epidemiological scenarios at the wildlife-livestock interface.

الخریطة الإثنو/ سیاسیة بدول حوض النیل بین الاختلاف والتغییر فى الفترة مابین (1960-2019م)

الخریطة الإثنو/ سیاسیة بدول حوض النیل بین الاختلاف والتغییر فى الفترة مابین (1960-2019م)

Spatial Expansion of Islamic Extremism in the Lake Chad Basin: Current Situation and Prospective Directions

The article discusses the expansion of the Islamic extremist groups (especially Boko Haram) in the Lake Chad basin countries. The geopolitical zones and states of Nigeria, regions of Niger and Cameroon, macro-regions of Chad were selected as the territorial range. The religious affiliation data has been compiled from the DHS-database. Income levels and literacy rates were evaluated indirectly using body mass index and the degree of age-heaping (modified Whipple's index), respectively. A hierarchical cluster analysis, has allowed us to categorize the territorial-administrative units into four groups by the probability of new Islamic extremist groups appearing there. The article clearly shows that Boko Haram may expand in the Western and North-Western directions. Meanwhile, the new cells are more likely to form inside Nigeria than outside it. Thus, in the near future, theexpansion of Islamic extremist organizations in the Lake Chad basin countries will occur at the local level.&#x0D; Keywords: Lake Chad basin countries, Islamic Extremism, Boko Haram, expansion.

Ecological assesment of Akkuyu nuclear power plant site marine sediments in terms of radionuclide and metal accumulation

Trace element availability and radioactivity concentrations of marine sediments of AKKUYU Nuclear Power Plant site were determined. The measured Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn concentrations were 3.4 ± 0.020, 22 ± 0.94, 17 ± 0.66, 226 ± 11.9, 58.9 ± 10.3, 8.3 ± 0.45 and 39.9 ± 1.65 ppm, respectively. Cd, Mn and Ni enrichment were observed. The calculated mean 226Ra, 232Th, 40 K and 137Cs concentrations were 24.7 ± 1.64, 19.4 ± 1.31, 416 ± 25.8 and 3.2 ± 0.53 Bq kg−1, respectively. Findings were comparable with reported literature for Turkey, Mediterranean Basin and other countries from the world. The presented data would enable to determine the possible future effects of the Nuclear Power Plant to the marine environment. Radionuclide and trace metal concentrations of marine sediments were presented in log scale.

Synanthropic spider fauna of the Carpathian Basin in the last three decades

This paper reviews the scientific literature published on synanthropic spiders in three Carpathian Basin countries—Hungary, Slovakia and Romania. A total number of 204 spider species have been reported from human constructions. Most of the 204 spider species (165 species) found in buildings were only occasional visitors, so-called asynanthropic species with typically low abundance. On average, eusynanthropic (23 species) and hemisynanthropic (16 species) species accounted for 80% of the specimen number. We have discovered that the number of hemisynanthropic faunal elements have remained unchanged in the past three decades. At the same time 14 new eusynanthropic species have been observed in the region, roughly one new species in every 2 years. Some of them have been introduced from the tropics, but some species originates from southern Europe, which may be related to climate change. This hypothesis was also confirmed by the seasonal summer outdoor appearance of these eusynanthropic species. True tropical spiders could only be settled permanently in greenhouses with special climate (such as botanical gardens). We still do not have data of any synanthropic species posing a health risk in this region.

A Major QTL Located in Chromosome 8 of Cucurbita moschata Is Responsible for Resistance to Tomato Leaf Curl New Delhi Virus.

Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus (ToLCNDV) is a bipartite whitefly transmitted begomovirus, responsible since 2013 of severe damages in cucurbit crops in Southeastern Spain. Zucchini (Cucurbita pepo) is the most affected species, but melon (Cucumis melo) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus) are also highly damaged by the infection. The virus has spread across Mediterranean basin and European countries, and integrated control measures are not being enough to reduce economic losses. The identification of resistance genes is required to develop resistant cultivars. In this assay, we studied the inheritance of the resistance to ToLCNDV previously identified in two Cucurbita moschata accessions. We generated segregating populations crossing both resistant pumpkins, an American improved cultivar Large Cheese (PI 604506) and an Indian landrace (PI 381814), with a susceptible C. moschata genotype (PI 419083). The analysis of symptoms and viral titers of all populations established the same monogenic recessive genetic control in both resistant accessions, and the allelism tests suggest the occurrence of alleles of the same locus. By genotyping with a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) collection evenly distributed along the C. moschata genome, a major quantitative trait locus (QTL) was identified in chromosome 8 controlling resistance to ToLCNDV. This major QTL was also confirmed in the interspecific C. moschata × C. pepo segregating populations, although C. pepo genetic background affected the resistance level. Molecular markers here identified, linked to the ToLCNDV resistance locus, are highly valuable for zucchini breeding programs, allowing the selection of improved commercial materials. The duplication of the candidate region within the C. moschata genome was studied, and genes with paralogs or single-copy genes were identified. Its synteny with the region of chromosome 17 of the susceptible C. pepo revealed an INDEL including interesting candidate genes. The chromosome 8 candidate region of C. moschata was also syntenic to the region in chromosome 11 of melon, previously described as responsible of ToLCNDV resistance. Common genes in the candidate regions of both cucurbits, with high- or moderate-impact polymorphic SNPs between resistant and susceptible C. moschata accessions, are interesting to study the mechanisms involved in this recessive resistance.

Diversity in the usages of edible wild plants by the Baka and Bakwélé in the periphery of the Tala Tala Forest Management Unit, North Congo

Background: In practice, timber companies use production forests or forest management units (FMU) for timber/wood purposes. Little attention is paid for Non-wood forest products (NWFP), which is not good. This study analyses the diversity in the usage of edible wild plants among the people based in the periphery of the Tala Tala FMU in the North Congo. Methods: An ethnobotanical survey was conducted from 8 to 23 May 2012 on edible NWFP used by Baka and Bakwele populations living in the periphery of the Tala Tala FMU. The method used is the one called «Method for the popular usage», which consists of gathering data on the popular use of forest products in a given area. By comparing the Tala Tala whole population to a forest zone, it is possible to make reconciliations between the systematic botany and the ethnobotany. This reconciliation distinguishes five levels of data collection in the ethnobotany of the Tala Tala including the whole population, the ethnic group, the informant (household), the plant species, and the quotation. We assessed the relative importance, diversity, and similarities in the usages of edible NWFP. Results : A total of 52 households provided information on the popular use of wild edible plants. A total of 57 plant species and 69 recipes were collected for which a total of 594 quotations (citations) were made. These plant species are distributed in 46 genus and 33 families. The Baka and Bakwele communities use the same plant species and recipes in the same way and with the same importance. The overall usage diversity is higher for both plants and recipes (H>4, E>0.8) among Baka pygmies than Bakwele people. Conclusions : Some plants used in the Tala Tala FMU are well known in other Congo basin countries for similar usages. Other were identified as ‘’priority’’ or ‘’key’’ edible NWFP. The glaring development challenge of what precedes is the urgent need to assess the abundance (availability) and conduct a structural analysis of the plant species used with the view to propose fair management schemes. Keywords: Forest Management Unit, Non-Wood Forest Products, edible plants, recipes, ethnobotany, diversity indexes.

The role of forest conversion, degradation, and disturbance in the carbon dynamics of Amazon indigenous territories and protected areas

Maintaining the abundance of carbon stored aboveground in Amazon forests is central to any comprehensive climate stabilization strategy. Growing evidence points to indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLCs) as buffers against large-scale carbon emissions across a nine-nation network of indigenous territories (ITs) and protected natural areas (PNAs). Previous studies have demonstrated a link between indigenous land management and avoided deforestation, yet few have accounted for forest degradation and natural disturbances-processes that occur without forest clearing but are increasingly important drivers of biomass loss. Here we provide a comprehensive accounting of aboveground carbon dynamics inside and outside Amazon protected lands. Using published data on changes in aboveground carbon density and forest cover, we track gains and losses in carbon density from forest conversion and degradation/disturbance. We find that ITs and PNAs stored more than one-half (58%; 41,991 MtC) of the region's carbon in 2016 but were responsible for just 10% (-130 MtC) of the net change (-1,290 MtC). Nevertheless, nearly one-half billion tons of carbon were lost from both ITs and PNAs (-434 MtC and -423 MtC, respectively), with degradation/disturbance accounting for >75% of the losses in 7 countries. With deforestation increasing, and degradation/disturbance a neglected but significant source of region-wide emissions (47%), our results suggest that sustained support for IPLC stewardship of Amazon forests is critical. IPLCs provide a global environmental service that merits increased political protection and financial support, particularly if Amazon Basin countries are to achieve their commitments under the Paris Climate Agreement.

Two haplotypes of Lobesia botrana (Denis &amp; Schiffermüller, 1775) predominate in two adjacent regions of southern Turkey

The study was conducted to determine the genetic structure of Lobesia botrana (Denis and Schiffermuller 1775) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) populations from South of Turkey by molecular methods. Mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase gene was used for phylogenetic and population genetic analyses comparing specimens from Mediterranean (MED-TR) and South East Anatolia (SEA-TR) Regions of Turkey with reference sequences from the Middle East and Europe deposited in GenBank. The Turkish specimens were allocated to seven haplotypes. Binary genetic distance between MED-TR and SEA-TR was above 0.6, whereas, between the Middle East and MED-TR was only 0.034. Gene flow was infinite between MED-TR and the Middle East, but was 0.23 between SEA-TR and the Middle East as the lowest. The two common haplotypes from Turkey were placed in two clades on the phylogenetic tree, separated with a bootstrap value of 100. The common haplotype from MED-TR clustered on the same branch at the tree with the sequences from Israel and Greece, whereas, the common haplotype from SEA-TR was close to European haplotypes, with this separation supported by haplotype network analysis. Overall, the results showed that L. botrana populations in these two adjacent geographic regions of Turkey consist mostly of two genetically different haplotypes. This could be a consequence of the cultivars grown, the production methods and/or the climatic conditions in SEA-TR. However, the most prevalent haplotype in MED-TR, with a predominantly Mediterranean climate, is likely to be prevalent in other Mediterranean Basin countries with a similar climate.

The changing water cycle: Freshwater in the Congo

AbstractClimate change in Africa is manifesting itself in the distribution and quantities of freshwater which are becoming serious security issues. Central Africa, particularly the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), with its abundant water, is caught in the middle of strategies to curb future effects of droughts, water scarcity and flooding across Africa. This article reviewed the current status of water and related biodiversity in DRC using a political economy, biological data and available social knowledge. Freshwaters hold the potentials to significantly contribute to the economy of DRC. However, fish stocks in some stretches of the Congo River are fished at intensities that exceed their productivity potential; water depths are decreasing in some others. Sources of the freshwaters of the Congo Basin cross borders of many countries but proper transboundary management plans to support cross‐border sustainable management of freshwaters are lacking. Stakeholders do not own freshwater sustainable management plans; growing populations and the drying up of large portions of Africa make that freshwater of the Congo, rather than being a uniting factor of the region, instead a security threat that Congo River Basin countries need to care about immediately. Caution should prevail in ways in which the freshwaters of the Congo Basin are exploited. Particularly, lack of in‐depth ecological knowledge about the biology and the mechanics of the Congo Basin's freshwaters call for careful scrutiny of the idea to export the freshwaters of Congo to refill the Lake Chad Basin as suggested by some politicians, since this could lead to an unprecedented ecological cataclysm.This article is categorized under: Water and Life &gt; Conservation, Management, and Awareness Science of Water &gt; Water Extremes Engineering Water &gt; Planning Water

EFFICIENCY OF MAIZE PRODUCTION IN THE NILE BASIN COUNTRIES: A PARAMETRIC APPROACH FOR EFFICIENCY MEASUREMENT

In this study we employ the stochastic frontier approach to estimates the evolution of technical efficiency for maize production in the Nile basin countries. The study is based on a panel data at the countries level and it represents the time period 1993-2016. The results indicate improving in the levels of technical efficiency for maize production in the Nile basin countries during the time period 1993-2016. The annual levels of technical efficiency for the studied period vary from a minimum level of 0.5310 to a maximum level of 0.9601. The Nile basin countries that are less efficient in maize production should make some adjustments to their agricultural policies to improve the capacity of farmers to efficiently use the existing resources to increase maize production.