Basic Sanitation Facilities Research Articles

A Theoretical Review of whether Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Complement Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Needs

In 2015, of the world’s population, 10 percent lived in extreme poverty, 11 percent was malnourished, 5 percent had no access to basic healthcare, 20 percent lived in fragile settings, 35 percent of women had experienced physical or sexual violence, 36 percent lacked basic sanitation facilities, and 15 percent lacked electricity. The United Nations proposed to address these global issues through 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which were accepted by 193 member countries. These committed countries are implementing the SDG agenda with all the available human, financial and technical resources. A recent review of SDG implementation across twenty six countries suggests that the progress is constrained by financial resources, which is resulting in geographically fragmented implementation and lack of integration amongst the goals. It has been reported that there is an annual gap of USD 2.5 trillion for the implementation of SDGs. As public resources, especially in developing countries, are already stretched, various alternative resource mechanisms are being explored to address the resource gap. The global community considers businesses an important stakeholder in achieving the SDGs through their resources and innovations. It has been argued that developmental activities and funds under corporate social responsibility (CSR) can be leveraged towards this objective. Institutional theory is a good early point indicator to study business response to social and environmental needs. Stakeholder theory has a perfect alignment with CSR philosophy to cater to multiple stakeholders. Social Contract theory and Political theory help study “mandatory” nature of CSR that is being introduced over last decade in multiple countries globally ranging from mandatory reporting to mandatory spending. In this context, businesses have a unique opportunity to use SDGs as a framework for improving CSR engagement in line with changing societal expectations. Through impact assessment and a strategic sensitivity to global sustainable development challenges, businesses may contribute to shared value creation, enhance positive impact by poverty alleviation and betterment of livelihoods, health and education, and reduce negative impacts like resource consumption, pollution, human rights violation across all processes.

Mapping and situation analysis of basic WASH facilities at households in Bangladesh: Evidence from a nationally representative survey.

BackgroundEnsuring water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities for households remains a major public health concern in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This study investigated the current situation of basic WASH facilities for households in Bangladesh and drew a national coverage map.MethodsWe analyzed the publicly available nationally representative 2019 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) dataset that was carried out by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) with support from the United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF). A total of 61,209 households (weighted) were included in the analysis. Both bivariate and multivariate analyses were employed to examine the relationships between independent variables (socio-demographic and economic status) and their distributions over outcome variables (basic water, sanitation, and hygiene). Further, the spatial distribution of WASH facilities at the household level was depicted.ResultsCoverage of access to basic water facilities at the household level was 99.5% (95% CI 99.4% to 99.6%), sanitation 60.7% (95% CI 60.0% to 61.5%), and hygiene 56.3% (95% CI 55.6% to 57.0%). However, coverage of combined access to all three components was 40.2% (95% CI 39.4% to 40.9%). Among all 64 administrative districts of Bangladesh, we found comparatively lower coverage of WASH facilities in the South and South-East regions and relatively higher in the households of the North and North-Western regions. An adjusted regression model revealed that richest households [AOR = 29.64, 95% CI 26.31 to 33.39], households in the rural areas [AOR = 1.64, 95% CI 1.50 to 1.79], household heads with higher educational attainment [AOR = 2.28, 95% CI 2.09 to 2.49], and households with 5+ family members [AOR = 1.64, 95% CI 1.56 to 1.71] had the higher likelihood to have basic WASH facilities.ConclusionLess than half of the Bangladeshi households had access to all three major WASH components (basic water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities); however, variation exists at the individual parameter of basic water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities. A comprehensive WASH approach may reduce the gap and improve the quality of WASH facilities in Bangladesh.

Conceptual frameworks regarding waterborne diseases in sub-Saharan Africa and the need of for a new approach to urban exposomes.

Sub-Saharan African countries, like many other low-income countries, have experienced urban socioeconomic inequalities due to rapid and unplanned urbanization. These processes have resulted in the creation of poor urban areas lacking basic sanitation, water, and hygiene facilities, and subjacent public health issues such as the spread of waterborne diseases. A system for the demarcation of disease transmission areas already exists, but the traditional framework is less appropriate in sub-Saharan Africa, making it necessary to divide these urban areas more adequately. In addition, the construction of frameworks and tools more specific to waterborne disease-related issues is essential. We propose restructuring sub-Saharan urban areas into more specific areas of exposure to waterborne diseases and associated exposomes, and then use this restructuring of urban areas of exposure to waterborne diseases in a conceptual framework that takes into account causes of exposure, impacts, and interventions. The division of urban areas into public, domestic, and individual exposure areas facilitates a more straightforward understanding of the dynamics of waterborne exposomes. Moreover, the inclusion of this division in the driving force–pressure–state–exposure–effect–action framework allows an effective stratified implementation of urban public health policies.

KONDISI SANITASI DASAR DENGAN KEJADIAN DIARE PADA MASYARAKAT

Diarrhea is a health problem that is still often experienced by the community and is a cause of high morbidity and mortality rates. The environmental factors that play a role are basic sanitation conditions which include clean water supply facilities, family latrine facilities, garbage disposal facilities and waste water disposal facilities. The research method used in this study is quantitative analysis using a Cross Sectional Design which aims to determine the condition of basic sanitation facilities. with the incidence of diarrhea in the community. The number of samples used in this study amounted to 65 samples. Data analysis was performed using the chi square test. The results showed that there was a significant relationship between clean water supply facilities and the incidence of diarrhea in the community with p value = 0.000 (p < 0.05), and sewerage facilities (SPAL) with p value = 0.000 (p < 0.05). while not significant are latrine facilities p value (0.702) and waste disposal facilities with the incidence of diarrhea in the community p value = 0.448 (p > 0.05).

Faktor yang Berhubungan dengan Kepemilikan Jamban Sehat di Desa Nambangan Kidul Manguharjo Kota Madiun

ABSTRACT
 
 The World Bank states that the 2018 data 22% of Indonesian people has not had a sanitation facility (latrine). The existence of latrines in Indonesia, according to World Bank data in 2015 about 22% of Indonesia's population does not have latrines. The coverage of national guard to urban areas with 79% and 49% for rural areas. Most of the sludge removal used the river or dug wells which do not have the requirements of health latrine and contiminate the ground water. Based on the data obtained from the Health Center Community Manguharjo in 2019 of 855 homes were inspected as many as 530 households, households have basic sanitation facilities such as latrines in the Health Center Community Manguharjo downstream for 420 households or 79%. This study aims to determine the relationship between the factors of income, knowledge, and attitude, with the ownership of latrines in Madiun City, Manguharjo. The research method used observational design with cross sectional approach. The sample are mothers who have children under five do not have latrines that 64 respondents. The sampling technique used random sampling. Statistical analysis used chi square test. Decision of research hypothesis testing based on the significance level of 5% (p = 0.05) and confidence interval (CI) 95%. The result showed that there are relationship between income and the latrine ownership (p = 0.037), knowledge (p = 0.037) and attitude (p = 0.037). The result showed no relationship between education (p = 0196), and the role of health care workers (p = 1.000) with the ownership of latrines in the Madiun City, Manguharjo.
 
 Keywords: Latrine, income, knowledge, attitude.

The Coralation Between Sanitation Facilities and Personal Hygiene with the Cases of Diarrhea in Breastfeeding Toddlers in Sinabung Post-Eruption Settlements, Berastagi District, Karo Regency

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between basic sanitation facilities and personal hygiene with the incidence of diarrhea in breastfeeding infants in Sinabung post-eruption settlement, Berastagi District, Karo Regency in 2021. This study was a quantitative study with a Cross Sectional Study design. Data analysis using chi-square test with a sample of 100 mothers who have toddlers aged 6-24 months. The results showed that the related variables were basic sanitation facilities (p=0.014) and hand hygiene (p=0.020) with the incidence of diarrhea in breastfeeding infants. Suggestions for this study to health workers are expected to carry out health promotion and education about basic sanitation and personal hygiene to mothers whose toddlers do not experience diarrhea to prevent an increase in cases of diarrhea and to provide treatment and education to mothers whose toddlers experience diarrhea so as not to occurrence of complications or severity of diarrhea to prevent death.

Factors Associated with the Incidence of Diarrhea in Toddlers in Legok Village

The number of diarrhea cases in children under five in Jambi City in 2019 was 3,621 cases. Of the 20 existing community health centers, the Putri Ayu community health center had the highest prevalence, namely 11.79% cases of diarrhea in children under five. Kelurahan Legok is a sub-district in the working area of the Putri Ayu community health center with the highest cases of diarrhea in under-five, namely 45 cases. The research design was case control. The sample of the research case was 45 mothers who had diarrhea with toddler, the control sample was 45 mothers who had no diarrhea. The research instruments were questionnaires and observation sheets. Data collection techniques are interviews and observation. Data were analyzed by univariate and bivariate using the chi-square test. The analysis showed that 73.2% of respondents had low risk clean water facilities, 57.1% of respondents had medium risk latrines and 60.7% of respondents had good parenting styles. The biariat results showed a relationship between clean water facilities (p = 0.016; OR = 6.25), latrine risk level (p = 0.015; OR = 4.6) and parenting patterns (p = 0.014; OR = 4.9) with the incidence of diarrhea in children under five in the Kelurahan Legok, the Working Area of the Putri Ayu community health center, Jambi City in 2020. The community health center conducts community empowerment in relation to the availability of basic sanitation facilities to reduce the risk of diarrhea incidence Increase parental awareness in preventing diarrhea through efforts to improve maternal parenting, both feeding practices, caring for toddlers, maintaining personal and toddler hygiene and time to interact with toddlers.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NUMBER OF FAMILY MEMBERS AND WEIGHT GAIN IN TODDLERS IN THE WORKING AREA OF THE BATU AJI COMMUNITY HEALTH CENTER

Background : The current state of nutrition for the Indonesian people is still not encouraging. Various nutritional problems such as malnutrition and malnutrition, lack of Vitamin A, iron deficiency anemia, disorders due to lack of iodine and excess nutrition (obesity) are still widely spread in cities and villages throughout the country. The factors that influence this situation include the level of family ability to provide food according to the needs of family members, family knowledge and behavior in selecting, processing and distributing food at the household level, the availability of clean water and basic sanitation facilities as well as the availability and accessibility of food. quality public health and nutrition services (Depkes RI, 2007). The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between the number of family members and the weight gain of children under five in the Batu Aji Community Health Center. Method : This research is an analytical survey or research that tries to explore how and why this health phenomenon occurs. Then analyze the dynamics of the correlation between phenomena or between risk factors and effect factors, by means of a cross sectional approach or collecting data at the same time. This research was conducted in the working area of Puskesmas Batu Aji, Posyandu Tulip Lestari, Posyandu Pelangi, and Posyandu Kasih, the working area of Puskesmas Batu Aji, Batam City. The population in this study were 596 mothers who had toddlers at Tulip Lestari Posyandu, Pelangi Posyandu, and Posyandu Kasih, the working area of Puskesmas Batu Aji, Batam City. Researchers want to measure the relationship between the dependent and independent variables using the Chi Square test. The statistical test criteria used Chi Square. Result : It can be seen that the frequency of the number of family members most of the members of the extended family is 62 people (62%). that there are more respondents who have children above the red line as many as 71 people (82.6%). Chi-Square obtained a p-value of 0.542 because the p-Value> 0.05 means that Ho is accepted Conclusions :It is known that there is no relationship between the number of family members and body weight under the red line for under-five children in the working area of the Batu Aji Health Center, Batam City with a p value = 0.542

Mutagenic and ecotoxicological assessment of urban surface runoff flowing to the beaches of Guarujá, State of São Paulo, Brazil.

Along the coast of the State of São Paulo, Brazil, urban drainage channels introduce a complex mixture of pollutants into the South Atlantic Ocean, that may cause deleterious effects to the aquatic biota. The objective of this study was to analyse, for the first time, the mutagenicity (Ames Salmonella/microsome test) and ecotoxicity (acute and chronic tests, with Daphnia simillis and Ceriodaphnia dubia, respectively) exerted by the diffuse loads discharged in Guarujá, São Paulo coast, Brazil. Water sampling occurred bimonthly between January and July 2018 (rainy season: January through March; dry season: May through July) at four beaches with different profiles of use and land occupation: Tombo (Blue Flag certification), Enseada (high use by tourists), Perequê (fishing community) and Iporanga (conservation unit). No mutagenic potential was detected in the complex mixtures flowing to the study beaches. However, 30 and 80% of the analyses showed acute and chronic toxicities, respectively, mainly in the Enseada and Perequê channels during the rainy season. To improve the environmental quality of these coastal waters and to reduce the ecological risks posed to the aquatic organisms and public health, several actions are imperative, such as the amelioration of the basic sanitation facilities and land regularisation actions.

COVID-19 pandemic and transmission factors: An empirical investigation of different countries.

The present work evaluates the impact of age, population density, total population, rural population, annual average temperature, basic sanitation facilities, and diabetes prevalence on the transmission of COVID‐19. This research is an effort to identify the major predictors that have a significant impact on the number of COVID‐19 cases per million population for 83 countries. The findings highlight that a population with a greater share of old people (aged above 65) shows a higher number of COVID‐19 positive cases and a population with a lower median age has fewer cases. This can be explained in terms of higher co‐morbidities and the lower general immunity in the older age group. The analysis restates the widely seen results that a higher median age and greater prevalence of co‐morbidities leads to higher cases per million and lesser population density and interpersonal contact helps in containing the spread of the virus. The study finds foundation in the assertion that a higher temperature might lower the number of cases, or that temperature in general can affect the infectivity. The study suggests that better access to sanitation is a certain measure to contain the spread of the virus. The outcome of this study will be helpful in ascertaining the impact of these indicators in this pandemic, and help in policy formation and decision‐making strategies to fight against it.

The association between presence of sanitation facilities and school enrolment in Pakistan

Pakistan is the seventh worst country in the world in terms of access to basic sanitation facilities, with 1 in 3 schools in Pakistan lacking basic toilet provision. Evidence shows that quality environment and physical infrastructure is linked with improved educational outcomes, although literature quantifying the magnitude, or mechanism, of how a toilet facility at school can increase school participation is a recent area of interest. By using school-level data of over 17.000 schools in Pakistan from The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), this paper estimates the relationship between a school having a toilet facility and enrolment at school, between the years 2013 and 2018. We find a school with a toilet facility is correlated with increased enrolment. Gender-wise breakup of results suggests, that for girls only schools, having a toilet facility was linked with a higher enrolment. However, for boys only schools, and for mixed schools, no robust evidence of any such association between a toilet facility at school and enrolment was found. Future research should focus on quantifying the mechanism behind the heterogeneous effects across gender, as toilet facilities potentially serve as a safe space for girls against harassment, assault and sexual violence.

Home sanitation facilities and prevalence of diarrhea for children in Oelnasi Village, Kupang Tengah Sub-district

ObjectiveThe existence of basic sanitation facilities is still one of the causes of diarrhea disease in East Nusa Tenggara, this study aimed to analyze basic house sanitation facilities and the habit of washing hands with soap on the incidence of diarrhea in children under five. MethodsThe research this observational analytic study used a cross sectional design. Samples are 100 houses of children under five in Oelnasi Village. The instrument used in this study was a data collection sheet in the form of a checklist and questionnaire. ResultsThere were only 3 variables related to the incidence of diarrhea diseases with p<0.05, i.e. family toilets facilities (OR 0.335, 95% CI: 0.147–0.762), family trash facilities (OR 4.000, 95% CI: 1.229–13.018), and hand washing with soap facilities (OR 0.294, 95% CI: 0.099–0.876). ConclusionsSome sanitation facilities that do not meet the requirements can cause diarrhea in children in Oelnasi Village. It is hoped that the community will pay more attention to basic sanitation hygiene they have, get used to washing their hands with soap before feeding toddlers, throwing garbage in its place, and not letting toddlers defecate in any place.

Factors associated with water quality, sanitation, and hygiene in rural schools in 14 low- and middle-income countries

Improving access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WaSH) and menstrual hygiene management (MHM) in schools is important to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 3 and 6. Inadequate WaSH and MHM in schools adversely affect student health and educational performance, as well as teacher satisfaction. However, there is little evidence describing factors associated with WaSH services and MHM in schools. We conducted 2690 surveys and collected 1946 water samples at randomly selected schools in rural areas of 14 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). We developed multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression models to identify factors associated with basic water services, water quality, basic sanitation facilities, basic handwashing facilities, and availability of MHM materials. We found that 51% of schools had at least a basic, on-premises water service. Twenty-eight percent of schools had at least basic sanitation services, 12% had at least a basic handwashing facility, and 26% had MHM materials available. Four percent of schools had all basic WaSH services. Half (52%) of schools had drinking water compliant with the WHO guideline value for E. coli. In regression models, we found that schools that did not share their water point with a community, had a parent-teacher association that supported WaSH, or had support from an external WaSH program were more likely to have access to basic, continuous, on-premises water service versus worse access. Schools with an on-premises water point, water available on the day of survey, a health club, or handwashing stations near toilets were more likely to have a basic sanitation service versus a lower service. Schools with limited or basic sanitation, health clubs, an MHM curriculum, a designated MHM focal person, or school funds for WaSH were more likely to have MHM materials. We conclude that improved institutional management and external support, accountability mechanisms, and enhanced training and hygiene curriculum will support sustained WaSH service delivery in schools in LMICs.

Gambaran Pelaksanaan Program Sanitasi Total Berbasis Masyarakat di Desa Oelpuah Kecamatan Kupang Tengah

Community-Based Total Sanitation (STBM) is an approach and paradigm for sanitation development in Indonesia that emphasizes the principle of non-subsidies through community empowerment in order to build hygienic and sanitary behavior. Indonesia generally has low coverage of basic sanitation facilities. One of the areas in East Nusa Tenggara Province that has become a priority for STBM Program implementation is Oelpuah Village, Central Kupang District, located in Kupang Regency. The problem in Oelpuah Village is the lack of knowledge in the community related to hygiene and sanitation. The purpose of this research was to get an overview of the implementation of the five pillars of STBM in Oelpuah Village, Central Kupang District in 2020. This research was descriptive. The research was carried out in five hamlets in Oelpuah Village. The sample was selected by random method. The population in this study were all 354 family heads in Oelpuah Village and the sample in this study were 188 heads of households. The results showed that Pillar I, IV, and V were categorized as not implemented Pillar II and IIIwere included in the criteria for implementation.

Modeling the Impact of Population Intervention Strategies on Reducing Health Disparities: Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Interventions and Childhood Diarrheal Disease in Peru.

Access to safe water and basic sanitation and hygiene facilities (WASH) are important for childhood health globally. However, inequalities in WASH access persist, and local governments need to better understand the potential impact of scaling up WASH services on childhood health. Using 2011 Peru Demographic and Health Survey data as a case study, we applied a modified substitution estimator approach to assess the impact of scaling up access (20-100%) to WASH on diarrhea prevalence among children < 5 years. The modified substitution estimator approach can help identify population subgroups or areas where WASH interventions and sustained implementation could be most beneficial and reduce existing disparities. Using findings from a recent meta-analysis and computing bootstrapped estimates and 95% CIs, we examined inequalities in the effect of WASH on self-reported diarrhea by urbanicity, maternal education level, household wealth, and district of residence. Increasing access (100% change) to improved water sources, sanitation, and hygiene facilities reduced population-level prevalence of childhood diarrhea by 8.2% (95% CI: 4.1, 12.3), 5.5% (95% CI: 0.7, 9.8), and 5.2% (95% CI: 2.2, 8.1), respectively. In stratified analyses, increased access to improved water sources and hygiene facilities was associated with decreased prevalence of diarrhea, with the largest reduction in rural areas and households with lower maternal education and lower wealth. Our findings suggest targeted WASH implementation in Peru is needed in rural areas and among lower socioeconomic-status households. In addition, even low levels of change in overall WASH access may decrease diarrhea prevalence.

Environmental and social determinants of health in informal settlements in Mbour, Senegal: challenges and policy directions

Rapid urbanization has created many informal settlements around big and secondary cities in Africa, which brings along with specific challenges for global health. In urban informal settlements, residents are often burdened with multiple and overlapping challenges that can undermine the environmental and social determinants of health from poverty to overcrowded, to inadequate infrastructure, all of which can combine to contribute to increased risk of exposures to environmental pathogens that increase infectious like diarrheal diseases in urban poor areas. The purpose of our study was to highlight the most challenges related to environmental and social determinants of health in informal settlements in Mbour, Senegal and to suggest policy directions and interventions to meet these challenges. Geographical and epidemiological surveys using a pre-structured questionnaire with all household heads were carried out to assess the structural and intermediary determinants of health in informal settlements in Mbour. Our results showed that informal settlements residents in Mbour suffer from many challenges like poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, and low education attainments, unhealthy environment, lack of water supply and basic sanitation facilities; high prevalence of infectious diseases, particularly diarrheal diseases among under 5 years old children. Specific policy directions should be developed and implemented by policymakers and local authorities to meet these challenges by prioritizing interventions related to water, sanitation and waste management with a view to reducing the environmental and health risks in informal settlements in Mbour. With the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) focused on improving health and wellbeing for billions of city-dwellers, ameliorating the immediate living conditions in informal settlements should be viewed as a key strategy to promote health, equitable development and reduce climate change vulnerabilities in this context of global environmental change.

Environmental Health and Child's Nutrition Outcomes: Evidence from Nigeria

Environmental health has been projected by the United Nations as a key to reduce morbidity and mortality in developing countries (WHO, 2008; Fayehun, 2010). The developing world is faced with multi-faceted problems often within the auspices of environmental factors inhibiting child growth and development. Such environmental factors like unhygienic environment, inaccessibility to portable water and sanitation are loopholes for infections to thrive; ultimately causing malnutrition, morbidity and mortality among children. Statistics show that about 100 million Nigerians lack access to basic sanitation facilities; 63 million do not have access to improved source of drinking water (WHO, 2015) and 75% of households burn biomass for cooking (IEA, 2013). 7 million avoidable deaths is attributed to poor sanitation and contaminated drinking water annually (UNICEF, 2018) while Nigeria ranks high among countries experiencing acute malnutrition among children (UNICEF, 2018). Achieving sustainable development goals 3, 6 and 8 which target healthy lives and well being; sustainable water and sanitation and affordable and sustainable energy for all may be a mirage.This study quantified the association between environmental health and nutrition; a cross-sectional analysis was undertaken using the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2013 to analyze nutrition (weight for age and height for age) of about 31,482 children while environmental health is an index composed from household source of drinking water, type of toilet facility and choice of cooking fuel. Analysis was done using regressionResult from regression analysis shows that there is a positive and significant association between environmental health and child’s height for age (24% and significant at 1%) and child’s weight for age (23%). The study recommends the need for policy makers to address environmental health as important condition for child’s nutrition.

Challenges Faced by Rohingya Refugees in the COVID-19 Pandemic

In August 2017, Bangladesh saw a massive influx of Rohingya refugees following their violent persecution by the Myanmar authorities. Since then, the district of Cox’s Bazar has been home to nearly 900,000 Rohingya refugees living in the densely populated and unhygienic camps. The refugees have been living in makeshift settlements which are cramped into one another, making it extremely difficult to maintain “social distance”. The overcrowded conditions coupled with the low literacy level, lack of basic sanitation facilities, face masks and gloves and limited communication make these camps an ideal place for the virus to spread rapidly. As nations struggle to contain the SARS-CoV-2 virus, refugees are one such population who are extremely vulnerable to the effects of this outbreak. If issues are not addressed at an early stage, its effects can be catastrophic.

Material deprivation, parenting practices, and children's psychological health and wellbeing in China.

This paper examined the extent and risk factors of child subjective wellbeing and psychological health empirically using China Family Panel Studies data set. Child subjective wellbeing was measured in this paper using six indicators including the frequency in feelings of depression, nervousness, restlessness, hopelessness, helplessness, and meaninglessness. Risk factors of child subjective wellbeing have also been examined in particular to the domains of household multidimensional material deprivation, parenting practices, and children's personal health conditions. The results of this paper implied that providing adequate nutrition and ensuring children's access to basic water and sanitation facilities were important strategies for promoting children's psychological health and wellbeing. Also important factor for child wellbeing is parenting styles and practices, that is, how parents interact with children in daily lives and how they behave as parents.

COVID-19 Related Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices and Needs of Households in Informal Settlements in Nairobi, Kenya

Background: Urban slums are at high risk of COVID-19 transmission due to the lack of basic housing, water, and sanitation facilities Overcrowded conditions mak