Cadet Basic Training Research Articles

The Effect of Cautionary Versus Resiliency Spine Education on Maximum Deadlift Performance and Back Beliefs: A Randomized Control Trial.

Scott, KM, Kreisel, BR, Florkiewicz, EM, Crowell, MS, Morris, JB, McHenry, PA, and Benedict, TM. The effect of cautionary versus resiliency spine education on maximum deadlift performance and back beliefs: A randomized control trial. J Strength Cond Res 38(7): e341-e348, 2024-The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of cautionary information about the spine vs. a message of spine resiliency on maximum deadlift (MDL) performance and beliefs regarding the vulnerability of the spine. This cluster randomized control trial involved 903 military new cadets (n = 903) during their mandatory fitness test in cadet basic training (mean age 18.3 years, body mass index 23.8 kg·m-2, 22% female). Subjects were cluster randomized to 3 groups. The cautionary group received a message warning them to protect their backs while deadlifting, the resiliency group received a message encouraging confidence while deadlifting, and the control group received the standardized Army deadlift education only. The outcome measures were MDL weight lifted and perceived spine vulnerability. Significance was set at alpha ≤0.05. There were no between-group differences in weight lifted (p=0.40). Most subjects believed that the spine is vulnerable to injury. Three times as many subjects who received the resiliency education improved their beliefs about the vulnerability of their spines compared with those receiving the cautionary education (p<0.001). This study demonstrated the potential for brief resiliency education to positively influence beliefs about spine vulnerability, whereas cautionary education did not impair performance.

Modeling Risk for Lower Extremity Musculoskeletal Injury in U.S. Military Academy Cadet Basic Training.

Sport and tactical populations are often impacted by musculoskeletal injury. Many publications have highlighted that risk is correlated with multiple variables. There do not appear to be existing studies that have evaluated a predetermined combination of risk factors that provide a pragmatic model for application in tactical and/or sports settings. To develop and test the predictive capability of multivariable risk models of lower extremity musculoskeletal injury during cadet basic training at the U.S.Military Academy. Cadets from the class of 2022 served as the study population. Sex and injury history were collected by questionnaire. Body Mass Index (BMI) and aerobic fitness were calculated during testing in the first week of training. Movement screening was performed using the Landing Error Scoring System during week 1 and cadence was collected using an accelerometer worn throughout initial training. Kaplan-Meier survival curves estimated group differences in time to the first musculoskeletal injury during training. Cox regression was used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was used to compare model fit. Cox modeling using HRs indicated that the following variables were associated with injury risk : Sex, history of injury, Landing Error Scoring System Score Category, and Physical Fitness Test (PT) Run Score. When controlling for sex and history of injury, amodel including aerobic fitness and BMI outperformed the model including movement screening risk and cadence (AIC: 1068.56 vs. 1074.11) and a model containing all variables that were significant in the univariable analysis was the most precise (AIC: 1063.68). In addition to variables typically collected in this tactical setting (Injury History, BMI, and aerobic fitness), the inclusion of kinematic testing appears to enhance the precision of the risk identification model and will likely continue to be included in screening cadets at greater risk.

Lower Extremity Musculoskeletal Injury in US Military Academy Cadet Basic Training: A Survival Analysis Evaluating Sex, History of Injury, and Body Mass Index.

Background:Injury incidence for physically active populations with a high volume of physical load can exceed 79%. There is little existing research focused on timing of injury and how that timing differs based on certain risk factors.Purpose/Hypothesis:The purpose of this study was to report both the incidence and timing of lower extremity injuries during cadet basic training. We hypothesized that women, those with a history of injury, and those in underweight and obese body mass index (BMI) categories would sustain lower extremity musculoskeletal injury earlier in the training period than men, those without injury history, and those in the normal-weight BMI category.Study Design:Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2.Methods:Cadets from the class of 2022, arriving in 2018, served as the study population. Baseline information on sex and injury history was collected via questionnaire, and BMI was calculated from height and weight taken during week 1 at the United States Military Academy. Categories were underweight (BMI <20), middleweight (20-29.99), and obese (≥30). Injury surveillance was performed over the first 60 days of training via electronic medical record review and monitoring. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were used to estimate group differences in time to the first musculoskeletal injury. Cox proportional hazard regression was used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs).Results:A total of 595 cadets participated. The cohort was 76.8% male, with 29.9% reporting previous injury history and 93.3% having a BMI between 20 and 30. Overall, 16.3% of cadets (12.3% of male cadets and 29.7% of female cadets) experienced an injury during the follow-up period. Women experienced significantly greater incident injury than did men (P < .001). Separation of survival curves comparing the sexes and injury history occurred at weeks 3 and 4, respectively. Hazards for first musculoskeletal injury were significantly greater for women versus men (HR, 2.63; 95% CI, 1.76-3.94) and for those who reported a history of injury versus no injury history (HR, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.18-2.64). No differences were observed between BMI categories.Conclusion:Female cadets and those reporting previous musculoskeletal injury demonstrated a greater hazard of musculoskeletal injury during cadet basic training. This study did not observe an association between BMI and injury.

Intentional self-regulation among young adults: Investigating the structure of selection, optimization, and compensation among West Point Cadets

Intentional Self-Regulation (ISR)—broadly defined, goal-directed behavior—is an important skill in promoting positive and adaptive development across the life span. The Selection-Optimization-Compensation (SOC) model of ISR describes goal directed behavior among children, adolescents, and adults. This study used an inductive and deductive approach to examine the factor structure of a SOC measure among 4909 cadets from the 2018-2023 graduating classes of the United States Military Academy. An 11-item, SOC measure was administered to all first-year Cadets during Cadet Basic Training, and analyses compared results of an exploratory factor analysis with multiple, theoretically suggested structures using confirmatory factor analysis procedures. Findings suggest that ISR consisted of three structures: Execution (composed of selection and optimization items), persistence, and compensation. Future research should explore the developmental trajectories of these three ISR structures and determine the relationship between ISR and important performance outcomes within the leadership context.

Factors Associated with Symptom Reporting in U.S. Service Academy Cadets and NCAA Student Athletes without Concussion: Findings from the CARE Consortium.

Symptom resolution is a key marker in determining fitness for return to activity following concussion, but in some cases, distinguishing persistent symptoms due to concussion versus symptoms related to other factors can be challenging. To determine base rates of postconcussional syndrome (PCS) diagnostic categorization in healthy cadets and student athletes with no recent concussion. 13,009 cadets and 21,006 student athletes completed baseline preseason testing. After inclusion/exclusion criteria were applied, the final sample included 12,039 cadets [9123 men (75.8%); 2916 women (24.2%)] and 18,548 student athletes [10,192 men (54.9%); 8356 women (45.1%)]. Participants completed the Sport Concussion Assessment Tool-3rd Edition (SCAT3) symptom evaluation as part of baseline preseason testing. The PCS diagnostic categorization was classified by the International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision (ICD-10) symptom criteria for PCS. In the absence of recent concussion, subgroups of cadets (17.8% of men; 27.6% of women) and student athletes (11.4% of men; 20.0% of women) reported a cluster of symptoms that would meet the ICD-10 symptom criteria for PCS. Participants with insufficient sleep and/or preexisting conditions (e.g., mental health problems), freshmen cadets, and cadets at the U.S. Coast Guard Academy and at the U.S. Air Force Academy (freshmen were tested during basic cadet training) were more likely to report a cluster of symptoms that would meet the ICD-10 symptom criteria for PCS. The ICD-10 symptom criteria for PCS can be mimicked by preexisting conditions, insufficient sleep, and/or stress. Findings support person-specific assessment and management of symptoms following concussion.

Trunk and Lower Extremity Movement Patterns, Stress Fracture Risk Factors, and Biomarkers of Bone Turnover in Military Trainees.

Military service members commonly sustain lower extremity stress fractures (SFx). How SFx risk factors influence bone metabolism is unknown. Understanding how SFx risk factors influence bone metabolism may help to optimize risk-mitigation strategies. To determine how SFx risk factors influence bone metabolism. Cross-sectional study. Military service academy. Forty-five men (agepre = 18.56 ± 1.39 years, heightpre = 176.95 ± 7.29 cm, masspre = 77.20 ± 9.40 kg; body mass indexpre = 24.68 ± 2.87) who completed Cadet Basic Training (CBT). Individuals with neurologic or metabolic disorders were excluded. We assessed SFx risk factors (independent variables) with (1) the Landing Error Scoring System (LESS), (2) self-reported injury and physical activity questionnaires, and (3) physical fitness tests. We assessed bone biomarkers (dependent variables; procollagen type I amino-terminal propeptide [PINP] and cross-linked collagen telopeptide [CTx-1]) via serum. A markerless motion-capture system was used to analyze trunk and lower extremity biomechanics via the LESS. Serum samples were collected post-CBT; enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays determined PINP and CTx-1 concentrations, and PINP : CTx-1 ratios were calculated. Linear regression models demonstrated associations between SFx risk factors and PINP and CTx-1 concentrations and PINP : CTx-1 ratio. Biomarker concentration mean differences with 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Significance was set a priori using α ≤ .10 for simple and α ≤ .05 for multiple regression analyses. The multiple regression models incorporating LESS and SFx risk factor data predicted the PINP concentration (R2 = 0.47, P = .02) and PINP : CTx-1 ratio (R2 = 0.66, P = .01). The PINP concentration was increased by foot internal rotation, trunk flexion, CBT injury, sit-up score, and pre- to post-CBT mass changes. The CTx-1 concentration was increased by heel-to-toe landing and post-CBT mass. The PINP : CTx-1 ratio was increased by foot internal rotation, lower extremity sagittal-plane displacement (inversely), CBT injury, sit-up score, and pre- to post-CBT mass changes. Stress fracture risk factors accounted for 66% of the PINP : CTx-1 ratio variability, a potential surrogate for bone health. Our findings provide insight into how SFx risk factors influence bone health. This information can help guide SFx risk-mitigation strategies.

Association Between Running Shoe Characteristics and Lower Extremity Injuries in United States Military Academy Cadets

Background: Running-related overuse injuries are very common among recreational runners, with the reported annual injury rates ranging from 39% to 85%. Relatively few large prospective cohort studies have been conducted to investigate injury risk associated with different running shoe characteristics, and the results of the existing studies are often contradictory. Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose was to investigate the relationship between running shoe characteristics and lower extremity musculoskeletal injury. It was hypothesized that the risk of injury would be increased in individuals wearing shoes with minimal torsional stiffness and heel height compared with those wearing shoes with greater levels of torsional stiffness and heel height. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2. Methods: The study included 1025 incoming cadets. Shoe torsional stiffness and heel height were calculated and recorded. Demographic data were recorded and analyzed as potential covariates. Lower extremity injuries sustained over 9 weeks during cadet basic training were documented by use of the Armed Forces Health Longitudinal Technology Application and the Cadet Illness and Injury Tracking System. Kaplan-Meier survival curves were estimated, with time to incident lower extremity injury as the primary outcome by level of the independent predictor variables. Risk factors or potential covariates were carried forward into multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models. Absolute and relative risk reduction and numbers needed to treat were calculated. Results: Approximately 18.1% of participants incurred a lower extremity injury. Cadets wearing shoes with moderate lateral torsional stiffness were 49% less likely to incur any type of lower extremity injury and 52% less likely to incur an overuse lower extremity injury than cadets wearing shoes with minimal lateral torsional stiffness, both of which were statistically significant observations. Injury risk was similar among cadets wearing shoes with minimal and extreme lateral torsional stiffness. Conclusion: Shoes with mild to moderate lateral torsional stiffness may be appropriate in reducing risk of lower extremity injury in cadets. Shoes with minimal lateral torsional stiffness should be discouraged in this population.

Prediction of cadet basic training physical performance outcomes

BackgroundEntry to the United States Military Academy requires submission of scores on the Cadet Fitness Assessment. The cadet fitness assessment consists of push‐ups, crunches, kneeling basketball throw, shuttle run, and 1‐mile run. Upon arrival for Cadet Basic Training, cadets are assessed on the components of the Army Physical Fitness Test; push‐ups, sit‐ups and a 2‐mile run. Additionally all cadets are assessed on a swim test. Records of stress‐fractures incurred during Cadet Basic Training are also retained.ObjectiveTo apply supervised and unsupervised machine learning to describe Cadet Basic Training and Cadet Fitness Assessment data compiled from the graduating classes of 2012 to 2021.MethodsSimple data‐analysis plots, linear regression models, and unsupervised k‐means cluster analysis were developed to predict Cadet Basic Training performance. Models were generated to identify the relationship between body mass index (BMI), age and gender on 2‐mile run performance to replicate past Army results.ResultsA total N=8886 (82% male) cadets were retained for analysis. The relationship between 2‐mile run performance and BMI was weak (R2=0.07), with age, BMI, and gender representing significant predictors (p&lt;0.01). Similar results were found for all performance outcomes except pull‐ups. The relationship between pull‐up performance and BMI was stronger (R2=0.47). The cluster analysis revealed four clusters. One cluster was identified to poor 2‐mile run performance while a second cluster was identified with poor swim, push‐up, and sit‐up performance. Scatterplots did not indicate any relationship between cluster assignments and BMI.ConclusionsBMI and even waist circumference may be poor predictors of performance on military physical fitness test outcomes. Machine learning could offer more precision for identifying poor performers early and provide novel opportunities for remediation.Support or Funding InformationNoneThis abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Association of Injury History and Incident Injury in Cadet Basic Military Training.

This study aimed to determine the association between injury history at enrollment and incident lower extremity (LE) injury during cadet basic training among first-year military cadets. Medically treated LE injuries during cadet basic training documented in the Defense Medical Surveillance System were ascertained in a prospective cohort study of three large US military academies from 2005 to 2008. Both acute injuries (International Classification of Disease, Ninth Revision, codes in the 800-900s, including fracture, dislocations, and sprains/strains) and injury-related musculoskeletal injuries (International Classification of Disease, Ninth Revision, codes in the 700s, including inflammation and pain, joint derangement, stress fracture, sprain/strain/rupture, and dislocation) were included. Risk ratio (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were computed using multivariate log-binomial models stratified by gender. During basic training, there were 1438 medically treated acute and 1719 musculoskeletal-related LE injuries in the 9811 cadets. The most frequent LE injuries were sprains/strains (73.6% of acute injuries) and inflammation and pain (89.6% of musculoskeletal-related injuries). The overall risk of incident LE injury was 23.2% (95% CI = 22.3%-24.0%). Cadets with a history of LE injury were at increased risk for incident LE injury. This association was identical in males (RR = 1.74, 95% CI = 1.55-1.94) and females (RR = 1.74, 95% CI = 1.52-1.99). In site-specific analyses, strong associations between injury history and incident injury were observed for hip, knee ligament, stress fracture, and ankle sprain. Injury risk was greater (P < 0.01) for females (39.1%) compared with males (18.0%). The elevated injury risk in females (RR = 2.19, 95% CI = 2.04-2.36) was independent of injury history (adjusted RR = 2.09, 95% CI = 1.95-2.24). Injury history upon entry to the military is associated with the incidence of LE injuries sustained during cadet basic training. Prevention programs targeted at modifiable factors in cadets with a history of LE injury should be considered.

Risk of Lower Extremity Injury in a Military Cadet Population After a Supervised Injury-Prevention Program.

Specific movement patterns have been identified as possible risk factors for noncontact lower extremity injuries. The Dynamic Integrated Movement Enhancement (DIME) was developed to modify these movement patterns to decrease injury risk. To determine if the DIME is effective for preventing lower extremity injuries in US Military Academy (USMA) cadets. Cluster-randomized controlled trial. Cadet Basic Training at USMA. Participants were 1313 cadets (1070 men, 243 women). Participants were cluster randomized to 3 groups. The active warm-up (AWU) group performed standard Army warm-up exercises. The DIME groups were assigned to a DIME cadre-supervised (DCS) group or a DIME expert-supervised (DES) group; the former consisted of cadet supervision and the latter combined cadet and health professional supervision. Groups performed exercises 3 times weekly for 6 weeks. Cumulative risk of lower extremity injury was the primary outcome. We gathered data during Cadet Basic Training and for 9 months during the subsequent academic year. Risk ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to compare groups. No differences were seen between the AWU and the combined DIME (DCS and DES) groups during Cadet Basic Training or the academic year. During the academic year, lower extremity injury risk in the DES group decreased 41% (relative risk [RR] = 0.59; 95% CI = 0.38, 0.93; P = .02) compared with the DCS group; a nonsignificant 25% (RR = 0.75; 95% CI = 0.49, 1.14; P = .18) decrease occurred in the DES group compared with the AWU group. Finally, there was a nonsignificant 27% (RR = 1.27; 95% CI = 0.90, 1.78; P = .17) increase in injury risk during the academic year in the DCS group compared with the AWU group. We observed no differences in lower extremity injury risk between the AWU and combined DIME groups. However, the magnitude and direction of the risk ratios in the DES group compared with the AWU group, although not statistically significant, indicate that professional supervision may be a factor in the success of injury-prevention programs.

Grit and Hardiness as Predictors of Performance Among West Point Cadets

The U.S. Military Academy has historically used an academically weighted composite of aptitude, leadership, and physical ability indices for selection of candidates and to predict their performance at the Academy. Researchers at West Point have begun to investigate the incremental contribution of a variety of less traditional nonaptitude or noncognitive factors in predicting performance. Particular focus has centered on hardiness and grit because they have been shown to predict persistence through Cadet Basic Training (CBT) and achievement in the first year at the Academy. In the current investigation, we further examined the predictive validity of grit and hardiness, and their subfacets, on retention and performance through the full 4-year West Point program with data from 1,558 cadets, comprising the West Point classes of 2009 and 2010. Results of regression analyses indicate that whereas grit interest and hardiness commitment were the sole predictors of attrition from CBT, only grit effort predicted persistence across the remaining 4 year period. College Entrance Exam Rank (CEER), a traditional measure of academic success, did not predict persistence. In terms of performance, grit interest, and hardiness control added to CEER in the prediction of 4-year academic performance. Although CEER continued to be the best predictor of military performance, grit effort and hardiness commitment were also important contributors. Finally, grit effort also added to the Athletic Activities Score and CEER in predicting physical performance. These results indicate that the noncognitive factors grit and hardiness are important predictors of success in military officer candidates. We discuss the implication of our findings for selection and prediction of performance of within military environments.

Modeling Transfer of Training and Training Effectiveness in Simulated Marksmanship Training

The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a positive transfer of training effects from simulated marksmanship training, specifically the Engagement Skills Trainer (EST 2000), and if so, to develop a model which could be used to predict the optimum time required to achieve a maximum positive transfer of training benefit. The data analyzed was collected from cadets attending Cadet Basic Training at the United States Military Academy. Multiple independent variables were analyzed with both objective and subjective evidence supporting that the EST 2000 is useful as both a trainer and a predictor of live marksmanship performance. Results include analysis of different weapon types trained and different time periods that elapsed between simulated and live training. Results emphasize criterion based training over training to time standards.

Identification and Management of 2 Femoral Shaft Stress Injuries

Resident's case problem. Although femoral shaft stress fractures in the general population are rare, they are more common among endurance athletes and military recruits. Such individuals presenting with a complaint of hip, thigh, or knee pain should raise suspicion for femoral shaft stress injury. A United States Military Academy cadet presented to West Point's Physical Therapy-Sports Medicine clinic with a complaint of thigh pain related to training with the local marathon team. A second cadet presented to the same clinic during Cadet Basic Training with a complaint of vague but increasing hip, thigh, and knee pain. Both cadets were suspected of having femoral stress injuries, based on clinical exams, and both diagnoses were confirmed with diagnostic imaging. The 2 cadets were both treated conservatively with progressive rehabilitation once healing was confirmed with radiographs. They both responded favorably to conservative management and returned to full athletic activity at approximately 12 weeks. Symptoms from a femoral shaft stress fracture can be vague and mimic those of other etiologies. Providers should consider a broad differential diagnosis, to include femoral shaft stress fracture, when treating endurance athletes and military recruits with anterior hip, thigh, or knee pain. Proper imaging confirms the diagnosis and sequential radiographs assist in rehabilitation planning.

Sleep Patterns of Young Men and Women Enrolled at the United States Military Academy: Results from Year 1 of a 4-Year Longitudinal Study

Sleep patterns of young adults are different from those of other age groups.. This study examined sleep patterns of cadets during their first year at the United States Military Academy. This paper presents initial results of a 4-year longitudinal investigation into sleep patterns of college-age men and women. Data were collected at the United States Military Academy, a 4-year undergraduate institution that develops men and women in 4 areas: intellectual, physical, military, and moral-ethical. Survey data were obtained from all members of the Class of 2007 (N approximately 1300), who ranged in age from 17 to 22 years. A stratified sample (n = 80) was selected to wear wrist-activity monitors. An additional 40 members of the junior and senior classes participated in the summer portion of the study. Sleep patterns prior to entering the United States Military Academy were compared with patterns during cadet basic training and fall and spring semesters. Actigraphy data were recorded on a sample of the class (n = 80) for 50 days during cadet basic training and 30 days during fall and spring semesters. During cadet basic training, incoming cadets received 5 hours 40 minutes of sleep per night. During fall 2003 semester, these same cadets received 4 hours 50 minutes of sleep on school nights and 6 hours 32 minutes on weekends. Sleep received during spring 2004 semester was similar, with 5 hours 06 minutes on school nights and 6 hours 29 minutes on weekends. This first year of baseline data collection describes cadet sleep patterns and sets the stage to assess the effectiveness of follow-on interventions.

Sleep Patterns and the Impact on Performance: A Study of Men and Women Enrolled at the United States Military Academy

Sleep requirements of adolescents and young adults are distinct from those of other age groups due to differences in the circadian rhythms of the sleep-controlling hormone, melatonin. This study examined the sleep patterns of cadets during their first year of training and study at the United States Military Academy (USMA). The study population included the entire USMA class of 2007 (n ∼ 1300) and a small group of upperclassmen (n=40). Actigraphy was recorded on a sample of the class (n=80). Survey results compared sleep patterns prior to reporting to USMA with sleep patterns during Cadet Basic Training and during the Fall semester, 2003. This baseline data collection effort sets the stage for follow-on interventions that will attempt to rectify inadequacies in the sleep patterns of cadets.

Epidemiology of injuries and illnesses during the United States Air Force Academy 2002 Basic Cadet Training program: documenting the need for prevention.

The rapid physical and emotional conditioning that occurs during Basic Cadet Training (BCT) creates ample opportunity for injuries and illnesses. The goal of this analysis will be to document the magnitude of injury and illness problems during BCT at the Air Force Academy and to identify potential risk factors for targeted prevention efforts. Data used in this study were collected on the basic cadet population from various sources during BCT 2002. Data analysis for this retrospective observational study included cumulative incidences, chi2 analysis, and logistic regression. Risk factors for injuries included being of the female gender, being an intercollegiate athlete, being overweight, and having an obese body mass index (BMI). Female gender, military preparatory school attendance, and obese BMI were risk factors for illnesses. Future BCT medical surveillance should focus on females, recruited athletes, and those with high BMIs. Prevention efforts should focus on reducing ankle sprains and respiratory infections to limit the amount of lost training time.

Evaluating the invariance of the structure of anxiety sensitivity over five weeks of basic cadet training in a large sample of Air Force cadets

Consensus is beginning to emerge in the literature on the dimensionality of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index [ASI; Behav. Res. Ther. 24 (1986) 1] in the form of a hierarchical model consisting of three group factors and one general factor. One important limitation in the literature on AS is that no studies have tested the invariance of the structure of the ASI over time or across conditions differing in terms of the degree of stressors impacting the participants. We conducted a test of invariance across conditions differing in the degree of stressors impacting participants by administering the ASI on three occasions to a sample of 881 first year undergraduate students from the United States Air Force Academy undergoing Basic Cadet Training. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses produced results that supported the invariance of the consensual hierarchical model of the structure of the ASI. These findings suggest that changes in any of the four scores that can be derived from the ASI (the total score and three ASI subscale scores) associated with changes in levels of stress can be attributed to changes in the degree, rather than changes in meaning, of the corresponding AS factor.

Impact of Foot Traffic from Military Training on Soil and Vegetation Properties.

The impact of military training activities (primarily foot traffic) on soils and vegetation was assessed at the United States Air Force Academy, Colorado, USA. In May-June 1998 after 2 years of intensive training use, mean bulk densities of the top 6 cm of soil in the high-use site (1.37 g/cm(3)) and moderate-use site (1.30 g/cm(3)) were significantly different from bulk density of the reference site (1.04 g/cm(3)). Mean infiltration rates on the high use site (0.63 cm/min) and moderate use site (0.67 cm/min) were significantly different from the infiltration rate on the reference site (3.83 cm/min). Soil water holding capacities of the three sites were not significantly different. Descriptive comparisons of total aboveground biomass and litter indicated a 68% decrease in total aboveground biomass and a 91% decrease in litter when the high-use site was compared to the reference site. Using the Universal Soil Loss Equation, an estimated soil erosion rate for the reference plot (0.07 tons/ha/yr) was 30 times less than the erosion rate for the high use plot in the center of the basic cadet training encampment area (2 tons/ha/yr) and between 7 and 6 times less than the moderate use plot and the high use plot on the edge of the encampment area (0.5 and 0.4 tons/ha/yr, respectively). Therefore, training use appears to adversely affect bulk density, infiltration, total aboveground biomass, litter, and erosion. Without implementation of restoration practices, further site degradation is likely.

Cadet Basic Training: An Ethnographic Study of Stress and Coping

Cadet basic training (CBT) at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point is an initial cadet experience designed to transition freshmen (new cadets) into the military. Challenge is an inherent component of CBT, and some challenging activities may be stressful. However, the nature and the impact of stress on health status have not been systematically investigated. An ethnographic technique, participant observation, was used to identify stressors and coping strategies among cadets aged 18 to 21 years participating in CBT. A company of 183 cadets, consisting of 123 new cadets and 60 supervising upperclass cadets from the U.S. Military Academy, was followed throughout the 6-week CBT in the summer of 1993. The investigator observed daily activities and participated in select field training experiences. Daily field observations were taped, and field notes were generated chronicling the experience. After CBT, 10 of the 60 upperclass cadets participated in a 20-minute structured interview. Field and interview notes were systematically reviewed to identify and categorize stressors and coping techniques. Stressors included anticipatory stress, time management pressures, sleep deprivation, performance evaluations, conflicts between teamwork and competitive grading, and inexperience in the leadership role. Coping techniques identified included perceiving social support, humor, and rationalization. Three new hypotheses were generated from the observations.

The Differential Impact of Training Stress and Final Examination Stress on Herpesvirus Latency at the United States Military Academy at West Point

In this study, we searched for evidence for reactivation of three latent herpesviruses, Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1), and human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), in West Point cadets experiencing two different stressors. Blood samples were obtained from cadets before and after a 6-week training period known as “Cadet Basic Training” (CBT), at a baseline prior to final examinations, and then once again during the week of final examinations. Antibody titers to latent HSV-1, EBV, and HHV-6 were determined as a measure of the steady-state expression of latent virus. EBV virus capsid antigen (VCA) IgG antibody titers were unchanged in blood samples obtained prior to and immediately after CBT. However, EBV antibody titers were significantly higher in the blood sample obtained during examination week than in the baseline period before examination; they were also higher than antibody titers before/after CBT. None of the serum samples were positive for EBV VCA IgM antibodies, indicating that the changes in antibody titers to EBV were not associated with recent EBV infections in the class. No significant changes in antibody titers to HSV-1 or HSV-6 were found over the identical time periods, including examination week. Academic stress but not CBT modulated the steady-state expression of latent EBV, resulting in the reactivation of latent virus. The same stressors, however, did not affect the steady-state expression of latent HSV-1 or HSV-6, at least as measured by changes in antibody titers. The data provide additional evidence of the impact of different psychological stressors on the steady-state expression of latent herpesviruses.