Baseball Hitting Research Articles

Temporal Coordination Strategies in Baseball Hitting: Insights from Stationary vs. Oncoming Ball Analysis

Temporal Coordination Strategies in Baseball Hitting: Insights from Stationary vs. Oncoming Ball Analysis

Hitting for Average: Educational Assessment, Unidimensionality, and the Connection to Baseball Hitting Statistics

Hitting for Average: Educational Assessment, Unidimensionality, and the Connection to Baseball Hitting Statistics

An Analysis Of In-game Collegiate Baseball Hitting Performance Following Sports Vision Training

Vision training (VT) programs can be utilized to enhance perception and eye-hand coordination to potentially improve sports performance. There is general support for VT improving athletic performance, but limited research is present for in-game performance improvements, particularly for collegiate baseball. PURPOSE: To evaluate for potential benefits of a VT program on collegiate baseball team hitting performance. If beneficial, VT may be used to supplement standard baseball practice to further improve hitting performance. METHODS: The Northwestern College (NWC) varsity baseball team, a member of the NAIA Greater Plains Athletic Conference (GPAC), performed VT exercises including Brock string, King-Devick test for saccades, long-distance saccades, and near-far training in 18 sessions during the 2019 season. In-game hitting statistics for the 2018 and 2019 seasons were retrospectively collected for all GPAC teams. Two-proportion z-tests were used to compare batting average and slugging percentage between NWC and the GPAC during the 2018 and 2019 seasons. RESULTS: The overall win-loss record of NWC was 30-20 in 2018 (1st place) and 23-25 in 2019 (6th place). Three starting hitters from the 2018 team remained on the team for the 2019 season. The 2018 GPAC batting average was .280 and NWC’s was 6th in the conference at .288 (p = .261). The 2019 GPAC batting average was .281 and NWC led the conference at .304 (p = .034). Batting averages for the GPAC and NWC did not differ between the 2018-19 seasons (p = .417 and p = .171, respectively). The 2018 GPAC slugging percentage was .388 and NWC was 3rd in the conference at .423 (p = .005). The 2019 GPAC slugging percentage was .393 and NWC was 2nd in the conference at .435 (p = .001). The slugging percentages for the GPAC and NWC did not differ between the 2018-19 seasons (p = .233 and p = .261, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The team batting average was significantly better than the conference average during the season with VT despite losing six starting hitters from the prior season. These differences were not observed in the season before VT. Slugging percentage improved only minimally with VT. These outcomes suggest that VT may improve the in-game batting performance of collegiate baseball players and confirm previous research on the effects of VT on collegiate baseball hitting.

Intermittent Cooling Reduces Perceived Exertion but Has No Effect on Baseball Hitting or Defense Performance in a Hot Environment.

Hot environments can impair the complex cognitive functions that are crucial to baseball hitting and defense. This study investigated the effects of intermittent forehead and neck cooling on the hitting and reactive agility of baseball players in hot environments. Ten male collegiate baseball players played 7-inning intrasquad games in a hot environment (31.1°C - 33.4°C), completing one cooling and one control trial in a randomized crossover design. In the cooling trial, the participants placed ice-cold towels on their forehead and neck for 3 min during offensive half innings. Hitting and reactive agility tests, a go/no-go task, and the Stroop Color and Word Test were administered before and after each game. The games in the hot environment significantly increased rectal temperatures to the same level in the control (38.15°C ± 0.31°C, p < 0.001) and cooling (38.08°C ± 0.24°C, p < 0.001) trials. Intermittent cooling significantly reduced forehead and tympanic temperatures, perceived exertion, and thermal sensation during the game. Swing power significantly increased after the game, but the exit velocity of batted balls did not significantly differ in both trials. Reactive agility was significantly impaired after the game in the control trial (before: 0.367 ± 0.109 s, after: 0.491 ± 0.212 s, p = 0.008) but displayed a trend of decrease in the cooling trial (before: 0.390 ± 0.183 s, after: 0.518 ± 0.282 s, p = 0.066). The game and cooling intervention had no significant effects on the reaction time or error rate in the go/no-go task and Stroop Color and Word Test. The results showed that intermittent cooling during a baseball game in a hot environment reduces perceived exertion and thermal sensation but has no significant effect on hitting, defense performance, or cognitive function.

A Hand-Worn Inertial Measurement Unit for Detection of Bat-Ball Impact during Baseball Hitting.

Swinging a baseball bat at a pitched ball takes less than half of a second. A hitter uses his lower extremities to generate power, and coordination of the swing motion gradually transfers power through the trunk to the upper extremities during bat–ball impact. The most important instant of the baseball swing is at the bat–ball impact, after which the direction, speed, height, and distance of the hit ball determines whether runs can be scored. Thus, analyzing the biomechanical parameters at the bat–ball impact is useful for evaluating player performance. Different motion-capture systems use different methods to identify bat–ball impact. However, the level of accuracy to detect bat–ball impact is not well documented. The study aim was to examine the required accuracy to detect bat–ball impact timing. The results revealed that ±2 ms accuracy is required to report trunk and hand kinematics, especially for higher-order time-derivatives. Here, we propose a new method using a hand-worn inertial measurement unit to accurately detect bat–ball impact timing. The results of this study will be beneficial for analyzing the kinematics of baseball hitting under real-game conditions.

Knee Kinetics in Baseball Hitting and Return to Play after ACL Reconstruction.

The purpose of this study was to describe the knee kinetics of baseball hitting, develop a tool to predict knee kinetics from easily obtainable measures, and to compare knee kinetics to other exercises along the rehabilitation continuum to determine a timeline for when hitting may resume after ACL reconstruction. Nineteen high school baseball athletes (16.3±0.8 yrs, 180.6±5.7 cm, 78.4±10.8 kg) participated. Participants took ten swings off a tee. Kinetic data were recorded using an electromagnetic tracking system. Data from swings with the top three exit velocities were averaged for analysis. Linear regressions were used to determine if predictors of height, mass, age and exit velocity could predict the following torques: bilateral knee net, extension, internal and external rotation, valgus and varus torque; and anterior force. Backwards regression models revealed independent variables could significantly predict front knee net, internal and external rotation, extension, and varus torque, and anterior force; and back knee net and valgus torque. Based on the kinetics of baseball hitting compared to those of rehabilitation exercises, if the involved knee is the front, we suggest tee hitting may be initiated at 13 weeks after ACL reconstruction. If the involved knee is the back, we suggest tee hitting may initiated at 17 weeks after ACL reconstruction.

Comparison of Lumbar Kinematics with a History of Low Back Pain During Baseball Hitting.

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a history of low back pain (LBP) on pelvic and lumbar kinematics during baseball hitting. Twenty collegiate male baseball players (age, 21±1 years; height, 172.8±4.7 cm; weight, 72.7±6.2 kg; baseball experience, 13±1 years) performed 5 bat swings. Participants were categorized into the LBP group (n=10) or control group (n=10) based on having experienced lumbar spine pain due to bat swing that lasted more than 24 h within the last 12 months. Three-dimensional kinematic data of the pelvis and lumbar spine during bat swing were measured. Two-way ANOVAs were used to compare pelvic and lumbar kinematics throughout the bat swing between groups, and independent t-tests were used to compare the other outcomes between groups. There was a significant main effect between groups in lumbar flexion angle throughout the bat swing (p=0.047). The mean lumbar flexion angle of the LBP group throughout the bat swing was less than that of the control group. Additionally, the peak angular velocity of lumbar flexion of the LBP group was significantly faster than that of control group (p=0.047). These results can be helpful for longitudinal studies that identify the risk factors of LBP due to bat swing.

Acceptable timing error at ball-bat impact for different pitches and its implications for baseball skills

In baseball hitting, batters need high precision timing control to hit the ball with bat’s sweet spot. Knowing the acceptable range of timing error for hitting the ball in the aimed direction for various pitch types is helpful to understand whether the cause of the batter's mis-hit is a spatial or temporal error and highlight the motor skills required by the batter. The purpose of this study was to determine the acceptable timing error in different baseball pitches and the impact characteristics of mis-hits. Twenty-six high school baseball players hit a ball launched from a pitching machine with three types of pitches: fastballs, curveballs, and slowballs. We recorded the three-dimensional behavior of the ball, bat, and human body (pelvis) using an optical motion capture system. We then defined the optimal impact location based on timing accuracy, and determined the acceptable range of timing error by the interactive relationship between the horizontal orientation of the bat’s long axis at the time of ball impact and the horizontal direction of the batted ball. The ±30° width in the horizontal direction of the batted ball was set as the precondition for the tolerance of timing. The acceptable timing error was ±7.9 ms for fastballs, ±10.7 ms for curveballs, and ±10.7 ms for slowballs, and the optimal timing for outside pitches was approximately 10 ms later than that for inside pitches. The timing error was also explained 38.1% by variation in the impact location along the long axis of the bat (R2 = 0.381, P < 0.001) and was minimized at a position close to the bat’s sweet spot. These results suggest that the optimal impact location and acceptable range of timing error depend on the pitching course and speed and that timing accuracy is essential to achieve the spatial accuracy required to hit the ball at the bat’s sweet spot.

Quantification of Ground Reaction Forces for Skilled Versus Recreational Baseball Hitting

Quantification of Ground Reaction Forces for Skilled Versus Recreational Baseball Hitting

Head-eye movement of collegiate baseball batters during fastball hitting.

Successful baseball hitting involves a combination of highly trained perceptual skills and forceful bat swing motions. The purpose of the present study was to quantify the horizontal movement of the head and eyes while baseball batters hit a fastball to clarify a visual strategy for this highly trained interceptive task. Six collegiate baseball players hit a fastball that was launched from a pitching machine. The ball speed was 31.9 m·s-1 for the Slow Ball Task and 40.3 m·s-1 for the Fast Ball Task. Horizontal head movements were analysed using images that were captured by two high-speed video cameras. The Horizontal eye movement was recorded with electrooculography. The angular speed of the horizontal head and eye movements during hitting were divided into four time periods (I-40 = 21–40% of total ball-flight, I-60 = 41–60% of total ball-flight, I-80 = 61–80% of total ball-flight, I-100 = 81–100% of total ball-flight) and analysed using analysis of variance and a Tukey post-hoc multiple-comparison. In the Slow Ball Task, the horizontal angular velocity of the head during I-80 was significantly faster than that during I-40 (p < 0.05). In the Fast Ball Task, the horizontal angular velocity of the head during I-80 was significantly faster than that during I-40 and I-60 (p < 0.05). These results indicated that the tracking motion of the head became faster as the launched ball came close to the batters, but there was no change in the angular tracking motion of the eyes. Therefore, rapid eye movement may not be suitable to accurately estimate the ball’s future location during fastball hitting based on the eye-centered coordinates. Our findings suggest that conventional vision training with a wide range of saccadic or smooth-pursuit eye movements does not reflect the characteristics of tracking strategies during baseball hitting.

An exploration of shifts in visual fixation prior to the execution of baseball batting: Evidence for oculomotor warm up, attentional processes or pre-performance routines?

The visual performance of athletes should be considered high on the list of variables fundamental to elite sport performance. One particular aspect of visual performance that has gained dominance over the last 25 years is the quiet eye. Quiet eye is the final visual fixation of long, steady duration prior to the execution of a motor skill. However, as the concept of quiet eye has achieved dominance in the field of motor control, we know increasingly less about the visual behavior that precedes the onset of it. This is especially true for externally-paced interceptive tasks such as baseball hitting. The present study collected data on the visual scene using mobile eye trackers, as experienced by 58 professional baseball players during batting practice. The results suggest that athletes exhibit multiple dynamic shifts in visual fixation prior to the onset of quiet eye and the pitcher's action. Furthermore, cluster analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between the number of shifts in visual fixations and batting average, indicating that this visual skill may contribute to more efficient interception of the ball. The purpose of these dynamic shifts in visual fixation are proposed, alongside a call for further research to develop a deeper understanding of this pre-task visual behavior and its role in sport performance.

Contribution of Visual Information about Ball Trajectory to Baseball Hitting Accuracy.

The contribution of visual information about a pitched ball to the accuracy of baseball-bat contact may vary depending on the part of trajectory seen. The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between hitting accuracy and the segment of the trajectory of the flying ball that can be seen by the batter. Ten college baseball field players participated in the study. The systematic error and standardized variability of ball-bat contact on the bat coordinate system and pitcher-to-catcher direction when hitting a ball launched from a pitching machine were measured with or without visual occlusion and analyzed using analysis of variance. The visual occlusion timing included occlusion from 150 milliseconds (ms) after the ball release (R+150), occlusion from 150 ms before the expected arrival of the launched ball at the home plate (A-150), and a condition with no occlusion (NO). Twelve trials in each condition were performed using two ball speeds (31.9 m·s-1 and 40.3 m·s-1). Visual occlusion did not affect the mean location of ball-bat contact in the bat’s long axis, short axis, and pitcher-to-catcher directions. Although the magnitude of standardized variability was significantly smaller in the bat’s short axis direction than in the bat’s long axis and pitcher-to-catcher directions (p < 0.001), additional visible time from the R+150 condition to the A-150 and NO conditions resulted in a further decrease in standardized variability only in the bat’s short axis direction (p < 0.05). The results suggested that there is directional specificity in the magnitude of standardized variability with different visible time. The present study also confirmed the limitation to visual information is the later part of the ball trajectory for improving hitting accuracy, which is likely due to visuo-motor delay.

B-37 野球打撃におけるインパクト時のバット角度を決定するメカニズム : 打者の両手がバットに加えた力系の貢献度を定量化する方法論の提案(打撃動作)

B-37 野球打撃におけるインパクト時のバット角度を決定するメカニズム : 打者の両手がバットに加えた力系の貢献度を定量化する方法論の提案(打撃動作)

The Acute and Chronic Effects of Isometric Contraction Conditioning on Baseball Bat Velocity

The purpose of this study was to examine (a) the acute change in bat velocity (BV) following three types of warm-up procedures for baseball hitting (experiment 1), and (b) the effect of an 8-week training program of isometric contraction conditioning (ISO) on BV (experiment 2). In experiment 1, the BV of 24 collegiate baseball players was measured before and after one of the three warm-up procedures; five standard bat (mass = 850.5 g) dry swings (SBS), five weighted bat (mass = 850.5 g + 680.4 g) dry swings (WBS), and four sets of 5-second maximal voluntary isometric contractions mimicking the bat swing movement pattern (ISO). BV was measured just before ball-bat impact. Experiment 2 followed experiment 1 and used only the ISO warm-up. Twelve of the 24 subjects formed the experimental group and underwent an 8-week training program (3 days per week) of ISO training. Results of experiment 1 indicated (a) no significant change in post-SBS BV (-0.33 m·s-¹), (b) a significant decrease in post-WBS BV (-0.89 m·s-¹; p < 0.05), and (c) a significant increase in post-ISO BV (+0.39 m·s-¹; p < 0.05). In experiment 2, there was a significant increase in baseline BV after the 8-week training period (30.21 ± 1.83 m·s -¹ to 31.15 ± 1.57 m·s-¹). A comparison of BV before and after ISO warm-up revealed that change was significantly greater after the training period (100.17 ± 3.18% vs. 103.75 ± 1.91%). Our results suggest that warm-up with WBS does not increase BV and that using the ISO has both acute and chronic positive effects on BV as a warm-up procedure to improve BV.

The Effect of Fastball Backspin Rate on Baseball Hitting Accuracy

The effectiveness of fastballs of equivalent speed can differ; for example, one element of this difference could be due to the effect of rate and orientation of ball spin on launched ball trajectory. In the present experiment, baseball batters' accuracy in hitting fastballs with different backspin rates at a constant ball velocity of 36 m/s was examined. Thirteen skilled baseball players (professionals, semiprofessionals, and college varsity players) participated in the study. The movements of bat and ball were recorded using two synchronized high-speed video cameras. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) was calculated and used to analyze the relationship between ball backspin rate and the vertical distance between ball center and sweet spot at the moment of ball-bat impact. Ball backspin rate was positively correlated with increases in the distance from the optimal contact point of the swung bat (sweet spot) to the actual point of contact (r = .38, P < .001). Batters were most effective at the usual backspin rate for the ball velocity used. The decrease in accuracy of the batter's swing that was observed when the fastball's backspin deviated from the usual rate likely occurred because experienced batters predict ball trajectory from perceived ball speed.

A Hierarchical Bayesian Variable Selection Approach to Major League Baseball Hitting Metrics

Numerous statistics have been proposed for the measure of offensive ability in major league baseball. While some of these measures may offer moderate predictive power in certain situations, it is unclear which simple offensive metrics are the most reliable or consistent. We address this issue with a Bayesian hierarchical model for variable selection to capture which offensive metrics are most predictive within players across time. Our sophisticated methodology allows for full estimation of the posterior distributions for our parameters and automatically adjusts for multiple testing, providing a distinct advantage over alternative approaches. We implement our model on a set of 50 different offensive metrics and discuss our results in the context of comparison to other variable selection techniques. We find that 33/50 metrics demonstrate signal. However, these metrics are highly correlated with one another and related to traditional notions of performance (e.g., plate discipline, power, and ability to make contact).

The Effects of Small Muscle Training on Baseball Hitting Performance: A Brief Review

A CONTROVERSEY EXISTS IN RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR BASEBALL AND SOFTBALL HITTERS. TRADITIONAL AND ANECDOTAL “HERESAY” SUGGEST THAT STRENGTH COACHES SHOULD HAVE PLAYERS TRAIN THE SMALL FOREARM, WRIST, AND HAND MUSCLES FOR INCREASED BAT VELOCITY. CURRENT BASEBALL/SOFTBALL RESEARCH SUGGESTS THAT THIS MAY NOT BE CORRECT. THIS ARTICLE WILL REVIEW THE EFFECTS OF SMALL MUSCLE ACTIVITY WHILE SWINGING A BASEBALL BAT, THE KINEMATICS OF SWINGING A BASEBALL BAT, AND THE EFFECTS OF STRENGTH TRAINING ON HITTING PERFORMANCES.

A Comparison of Age Level on Baseball Hitting Kinematics

We propose that learning proper hitting kinematics should be encouraged at a young age during youth baseball because this may help reinforce proper hitting kinematics as a player progresses to higher levels of baseball in their adult years. To enhance our understanding between youth and adult baseball hitting, kinematic and temporal analyses of baseball hitting were evaluated with a high-speed motion analysis system between 12 skilled youth and 12 skilled adult baseball players. There were only a small number of temporal differences between youth and adult hitters, with adult hitters taking significantly greater time than youth hitters during the stride phase and during the swing. Compared with youth hitters, adult hitters a) had significantly greater (p < .01) lead knee flexion when the hands started to move forward; b) flexed the lead knee over a greater range of motion during the transition phase (31 degrees versus 13 degrees); c) extended the lead knee over a greater range of motion during the bat acceleration phase (59 degrees versus 32 degrees); d) maintained a more open pelvis position at lead foot off ground; and e) maintained a more open upper torso position when the hands started to move forward and a more closed upper torso position at bat-ball contact. Moreover, adult hitters had greater peak upper torso angular velocity (857 degrees/s versus 717 degrees/s), peak left elbow extension angular velocity (752 degrees/s versus 598 degrees/s), peak left knee extension angular velocity (386 degrees/s versus 303 degrees/s), and bat linear velocity at bat-ball contact (30 m/s versus 25 m/s). The numerous differences in kinematic and temporal parameters between youth and adult hitters suggest that hitting mechanics are different between these two groups.

Effects of Bat Grip on Baseball Hitting Kinematics

A motion system collected 120-Hz data from 14 baseball adult hitters using normal and choke-up bat grips. Six swings were digitized for each hitter, and temporal and kinematic parameters were calculated. Compared with a normal grip, the choke-up grip resulted in 1) less time during stride phase and swing; 2) the upper torso more opened at lead foot contact; 3) the pelvis more closed and less bat linear velocity at bat-ball contact; 4) less range of motion of the upper torso and pelvis during swing; 5) greater elbow flexion at lead foot contact; and 6) greater peak right elbow extension angular velocity. The decreased time during the stride phase when using a choke-up grip implies that hitters quicken their stride when they choke up. Less swing time duration and less upper torso and pelvis rotation range of motion using the choke-up grip supports the belief of many coaches and players that using a choke-up grip results in a "quicker" swing. However, the belief that using a choke-up grip leads to a faster moving bat was not supported by the results of this study.

Shoulder Muscle Recruitment Patterns and Related Biomechanics during Upper Extremity Sports

Understanding when and how much shoulder muscles are active during upper extremity sports is helpful to physicians, therapists, trainers and coaches in providing appropriate treatment, training and rehabilitation protocols to these athletes. This review focuses on shoulder muscle activity (rotator cuff, deltoids, pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, triceps and biceps brachii, and scapular muscles) during the baseball pitch, the American football throw, the windmill softball pitch, the volleyball serve and spike, the tennis serve and volley, baseball hitting, and the golf swing. Because shoulder electromyography (EMG) data are far more extensive for overhead throwing activities compared with non-throwing upper extremity sports, much of this review focuses on shoulder EMG during the overhead throwing motion. Throughout this review shoulder kinematic and kinetic data (when available) are integrated with shoulder EMG data to help better understand why certain muscles are active during different phases of an activity, what type of muscle action (eccentric or concentric) occurs, and to provide insight into the shoulder injury mechanism. Kinematic, kinetic and EMG data have been reported extensively during overhead throwing, such as baseball pitching and football passing. Because shoulder forces, torques and muscle activity are generally greatest during the arm cocking and arm deceleration phases of overhead throwing, it is believed that most shoulder injuries occur during these phases. During overhead throwing, high rotator cuff muscle activity is generated to help resist the high shoulder distractive forces approximately 80-120% bodyweight during the arm cocking and deceleration phases. During arm cocking, peak rotator cuff activity is 49-99% of a maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) in baseball pitching and 41-67% MVIC in football throwing. During arm deceleration, peak rotator cuff activity is 37-84% MVIC in baseball pitching and 86-95% MVIC in football throwing. Peak rotator cuff activity is also high is the windmill softball pitch (75-93% MVIC), the volleyball serve and spike (54-71% MVIC), the tennis serve and volley (40-113% MVIC), baseball hitting (28-39% MVIC), and the golf swing (28-68% MVIC). Peak scapular muscle activity is also high during the arm cocking and arm deceleration phases of baseball pitching, with peak serratus anterior activity 69-106% MVIC, peak upper, middle and lower trapezius activity 51-78% MVIC, peak rhomboids activity 41-45% MVIC, and peak levator scapulae activity 33-72% MVIC. Moreover, peak serratus anterior activity was approximately 60% MVIC during the windmill softball pitch, approximately 75% MVIC during the tennis serve and forehand and backhand volley, approximately 30-40% MVIC during baseball hitting, and approximately 70% MVIC during the golf swing. In addition, during the golf swing, peak upper, middle and lower trapezius activity was 42-52% MVIC, peak rhomboids activity was approximately 60% MVIC, and peak levator scapulae activity was approximately 60% MVIC.