Barcelona Convention Research Articles

Shared Waters—shared Responsibility. Application of the Principles of Fairness for Burden Sharing in the Mediterranean

The paper addresses the issue of burden sharing within the context of the Barcelona Convention for the protection of the Mediterranean. The initial premise is that the perceived fairness of burden sharing rules is an important factor in the success of multilateral environmental agreements. We review briefly the basic ideas behind the fairness and equity debate in global environmental affairs before we apply a number of widely accepted equity rules in the case of Mediterranean marine protection. We derive arithmetic examples to illustrate the application of the rules and compare them in terms of their political attractiveness, cost-effectiveness and practical feasibility. It is shown that the simple rule of egalitarian justice scores high on all aspects.

Habitat preference modelling as a conservation tool: proposals for marine protected areas for cetaceans in southern Spanish waters

Abstract As part of a project to identify marine protected areas (MPAs) in Spanish Mediterranean waters, habitat preference models were developed using 11 years of survey data to provide predictions of relative density for cetacean species occurring off southern Spain. Models for bottlenose, striped and common dolphin described, firstly, probability of occurrence (using GLMs) and, secondly, group size (using linear models) as predicted by habitat type defined by a range of physical and oceanographic covariates. Models for Risso's dolphin, long‐finned pilot, sperm and beaked whales used only the first stage because of data limitations. Model results were used to define the boundaries of three proposed Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) (under the EU Habitats Directive) and one proposed Specially Protected Area of Mediterranean Importance (SPAMI) (under the Barcelona Convention). The study illustrates the value of habitat preference modelling as a tool to help identify potential MPAs. The analyses incorporate environmental data in a spatial prediction that is an improvement over simpler descriptions of animal occurrence. Contiguous areas covering a specified proportion of relative abundance can readily be defined. Areas with apparently good habitat but few observations can be identified for future research or monitoring programmes. Models can be refitted as new observations and additional environmental data become available, allowing changes in habitat preference to be investigated and monitoring how well MPAs are likely to be affording protection. The study represents an important contribution to the implementation of the Habitats Directive by the Spanish government by providing a robust scientific basis for the definition of SAC and providing results to inform conservation objectives and management plans for these areas. The results identified areas that are important for a number of cetacean species, thus illustrating the potential for MPAs to improve cetacean conservation generally in the Alboran Sea, a region of great importance for supporting biodiversity and ecological processes in the wider Mediterranean Sea. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Low energy desalination and wind energy — sustainable solutions for drinking water production

ENERCON has manufactured and installed more than 6940 wind energy converters world wide with a total installed capacity of 5.8 GW with an energy production of more than 8.2 billion kWh/y. ENERCON also applies its technical and management know-how to desalination plants and has developed technical solutions for environmentally friendly desalination processes. The use of additives within membrane processes for antiscaling and antifouling can be avoided by physical effects during water flow. Prototypes on Mediterranean islands work without using any additives — a benefit for the marine environment (Barcelona Convention), for water quality and less expense for chemicals. ENERCON plants are low noise installations which can therefore be built close to drinking water consumers. The upcoming emission trading model (Kyoto Protocol) will also concern desalination plant operators, especially in the European Union. The energy levels in renewable energy resources fluctuate. For an energy efficient combination with desalination plants ENERCON has developed technical solutions so that plants can control the fluctuation of energy supply related to renewable energy resources. These desalination plants do not have a fixed point of operation — plants run in a range of 20–100% energy availability at optimum efficiency — with low energy consumption. Attention has to be turned to wind energy. Generally, desalination plants are located on the coast — which also presents excellent conditions for wind power, especially on islands. The system can work completely independently in regions without stable or any electrical networks, as well as integrated into a public net. During strong wind there is more energy available than the desalination process needs, so it can be fed into the public net. When wind conditions are poor the energy support can work the other way round. An innovative combination of desalination processes and renewable wind power can create a holistic system for water and even for energy supply. Also not being dependent on fossil energy sources may become a bigger advantage than we can expect nowadays. The prices for oil may rise in the future and the transport costs for oil (by ships or trucks) will remain a fixed expense. Investment costs per kWh from wind energy converters are steadily decreasing! Transport, set up, and expansion of ENERCON desalination plants are easily implemented because of the modular design. However, the combination with wind energy is not a must since plants ft together with all kinds of existing networks. Economic reasons are of main importance for decision makers in water services. Apart from saving expenses for fossil energy resources and additives, ENERCON desalination plants also reduce personnel costs because of fully automatic operation and a remote monitoring system. Operators can observe the plant from their offices and maintenance staff is informed about eventual problems by SMS.

Threatened Fishes of the World: Cetorhinus maximus (Gunnerus 1765) (Cetorhinidae)

Common names: Basking shark (E), pelerin (Fr), peregrino (Sp), squalo elefante (It). Conservation status: IUCN Red List VU A1ad + 2d. In April 2000, proposed listing on CITES Appendix II failed to receive 2/3 vote required to pass. Protected in western North Atlantic under NMFS 50 CFR, Pt. 678; off Florida under State Administrative Code; in U.K. waters to the 12-mile territorial limit under Wildlife and Countryside Act, off Isle of Guernsey by fisheries legislation, and off Isle of Man under Wildlife Act, Section 5; in Mediterranean under Barcelona Convention, Annex II (protocol signed but not ratified), Bern Convention, Appendix II (reservation lodged by EU); off Malta, under Legal Notice 161; and off New Zealand by federal fishery legislation. Identification: A very large (9+m TL), elongate, spindle-shaped shark with enormous gill slits that virtually encircle head, bristle-like gill rakers, narrow caudal peduncle supported by strong lateral keels, and lunate caudal fin. Snout flattened (sinusoidal in neonates), mouth subterminal, teeth minute, hook-like, and numerous. Distribution: Amphitemperate in coastal regions, occasionally venturing into subtropical waters. Abundance: Seasonally abundant in cool temperate coastal waters at moderate to high latitudes during summer plankton blooms. Habitat and ecology: Coastal to pelagic in boreal to warm temperate waters of continental and insular shelves, from surface to 570 m. Temperature range 6–14◦C, but prefers 8–12◦C. Highly migratory, moving to surface waters at higher latitudes in summer and autumn and disappearing in winter. May exhibit subtropical submergence, remaining in deep water at low latitudes. Usually encountered near surface, but may be primarily mesopelagic, appearing in surface waters when conditions are favourable. Preys on zooplankton, especially Calanus copepods, teleost eggs, chaetognaths, and larval crustaceans. Gill rakers filter planktonic organisms as the animal swims slowly near the surface with mouth agape and gill slits expanded. Often feeds along current and/or thermal fronts which concentrate prey, changing course to remain in patches of richest feeding. Sometimes 3+ individuals swim in tandem, nose-to-tail, in straight lines or circles. In eastern North Atlantic, gill rakers are shed Oct.–Nov. and replaced in Feb. Reproduction: Males mature at 4.6–6.1 m and 12–16 years; females at 8.1–9.8 m and 20 years. Ovoviviparous, probably with intrauterine oophagy. Gestation possibly 14 months. Pups probably 150–170 cm at birth. Six pups reported born (spontaneously aborted?) from a harpooned individual in Norwegian waters. Off British Isles, courtship and mating may occur late spring to summer. In late June 1988, possible mating behaviour was filmed off Nova Scotia, Canada. Strong sex biases (18–40 females/male) in commercial catches off British Isles suggest segregation by sex. Threats: Heavily fished off China and Japan by harpoon; also taken in nets and trawls. Off California and Canada’s east coast, finning occurs opportunistically in net-entrapped bycatch. In the western North Atlantic and eastern North Pacific, sometimes a nuisance to commercial fishermen due to fouling in gear, occasionally resulting in governmental intervention. Protective legislation and local enforcement are inadequate, allowing harvest of sharks and encouraging an underground sales network for highly lucrative fins. Harassment by sport divers and ecotourists may disrupt social or mating activities vital to survival, but remains common and unrestricted in many areas. Lack of knowledge on many crucial aspects of basking shark biology hinders development of sound management and conservation strategies. Conservation action: Local protective laws are strict, with bans on trade and molestation, but loopholes – such as lack of enforcement of trade in basking shark fins and other products – may neutralise existing protective measures. Conservation recommendations: (1) CITES listing to support world-wide ban of trade in basking shark parts to supplement and strengthen local protection and discourage targeted catches. (2) Development of protocols (similar to whale watch industry) for interaction with basking sharks by boaters and divers. (3) Development of educational efforts to promote adoption of said protocols by government and industry. (4) A major international effort to fund and co-ordinate basking shark research, particularly population dynamics, reproduction, and behavioural ecology, towards development of sound management and conservation strategies. Remarks: Extremely protracted life-cycle and low fecundity may render this species particularly susceptible to even modest population reductions.

Global governance for the environment and the role of Multilateral Environmental Agreements in conservation

The role of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Ramsar Wetlands Convention, and the Barcelona Convention on the Mediterranean has grown increasingly important, in the context of conservation management, during the last decade as human impacts intensify and cross national boundaries more often. In resorting to MEAs it is important to maintain a clear focus on their opportunities and limitations. They are a means to resolve transboundary problems with neighbouring states and adopt harmonized approaches, they increasingly offer access to worldwide knowledge, tools and financial resources, and they can give conservation agencies a stronger mandate domestically. But they are specialized instruments focused on particular problems or sectors. The threats they address and the solutions they outline have to be evaluated in relation to overall environmental and socio-economic priorities. This entails linkages among different problems and sectors at various scales. Regional and ecosystem-level approaches are most appropriate for sorting out linkages and priorities. Extensive capacity building is needed at these levels to foster the requisite skills for integrated approaches. In addition, new mechanisms may be required at these levels to coordinate diverse specialized regimes. This does not require a monolithic, top-down approach but rather ongoing flexibility and responsiveness informed from the bottom up. We should take advantage of the new directions highlighted by the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, in 2002 and other recent international conferences to build these abilities into international governance. Conservation managers have an important role to play. By working nationally and internationally they can inform and influence the shift towards integrated and coordinated efforts, suggesting ways to accomplish this on a larger, international scale based on concrete experience in situ.

Two Steps Forward, One Step Backward: Societal Capacity and Israel's Implementation of the Barcelona Convention and the Mediterranean Action Plan

A large literature exists regarding explanations for the emergence of cooperation in the Mediterranean basin, but there is less information regarding the effectiveness of Mediterranean cooperation and its programs. Through a case study of Israel's implementation and compliance with the Barcelona Convention and the Mediterranean Action Plan, we evaluate the effectiveness of these international institutions. We find that international institutions and their efforts to target state capacity as the mechanism to improve compliance and effectiveness are often misguided unless their efforts are also directed towards enhancing societal capacity. We then explicate the way in which societal actors such as environmental NGOs can improve domestic compliance and effectiveness. These findings are illuminated through an assessment of the activities of several environmental NGOs in Israel to target Mediterranean pollution and coastal management policies. Where NGOs have taken action, they have often proved successful in forcing the Israeli government and the business sector to honor its environmental commitments.

Qualitative assessment of the effectiveness of the Mediterranean action plan: wastewater management in the Mediterranean region

Land-based pollutants, primarily arising from sewage disposal, constitute the greatest threat to the Mediterranean marine environment and to public health. The adoption of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) (1975), Barcelona Convention (1976) and its related protocols was the first response of the Mediterranean coastal states to this problem. At present most of the Mediterranean countries dispose of their wastewater directly into the Mediterranean sometimes treated, though more often than not untreated. Due to freshwater shortages an increasing number of Mediterranean countries are reusing wastewater for irrigation. As the system currently operates, it is apparent that action proposed regarding land-based pollutants has not achieved the objectives outlined in the Barcelona Convention, bringing into question the effectiveness of the implementation process of the land-based sources (LBS) protocol. Accordingly, the main objective of this analysis is to assess the effectiveness of the MAP, in particular the LBS protocol in the context of wastewater management in the Mediterranean countries. A brief description of the MAP and its legal, scientific, and socio-economic components is presented. The current state of wastewater management in the Mediterranean countries is described in relation to wastewater reuse in agriculture and its implications. The effectiveness of the MAP to combat pollution from wastewater mismanagement is examined with recommendations and measures to address the problem.

Conservation and management of northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean maerl beds

1. Maerl beds occur worldwide and are formed by an accumulation of unattached calcareous red algae (Rhodophyta). 2. Maerl-forming algae grow in a superficial living layer on sediments within the photic zone. 3. Maerl beds are spatially complex habitats with a high degree of species and trophic group diversity. 4. The European Commission's ‘Habitats Directive’ mandates the conservation management of two of the main European maerl-forming species, Phymatolithon calcareum and Lithothamnion corallioides. 5. Mediterranean maerl beds are to be considered for inclusion in national inventories of sites of conservation interest, as required by the SPABIM Protocol of the Barcelona Convention. 6. In spite of their importance, and the requirement for their conservation management, European maerl grounds suffer a variety of anthropogenic perturbations including direct exploitation through extraction, fishing impacts and chemical pollution by organic matter and excess nutrients. 7. The ecology of northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean maerl beds has received little attention, in contrast to other marine communities (e.g. kelp forests, sea-grass meadows). 8. Key conservation and management measures proposed include: the recognition that maerl beds are non-renewable resources and cannot sustain direct exploitation; prohibitions on the use of towed gear on maerl grounds; moratoria on the issue of further permits for the siting of aquaculture units above maerl grounds; monitoring of existing exploited or impacted maerl beds; the designation of ‘no-take’ reserves; measures to limit the impacts that might affect water quality above maerl beds; a programme of monitoring of the ‘health’ of European maerl beds; an awareness campaign on the biological importance of maerl beds; a higher conservation status for maerl habitats and maerl-forming species in European legislation; and further research on maerl ecosystems. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Monitoring of the mediterranean sea pollution (med pol) and data quality assurance

The concerted effort to monitor contaminants and to assess pollution in the Mediterranean Sea was agreed upon by the riverine States with a Programme named MED POL, part of the Barcelona Convention signed up in 1975. For near 25 years, this Programme has been the cornerstone of the Mediterranean Action Plan and has been instrumental to develop the capabilities of the countries to measure and assess marine pollution. Through cooperation with the IAEA Marine Environment Laboratory, in Monaco, which has acted as analytical and training centre for MED POL, hundreds of analysts of the Mediterranean region were trained, equipment was installed and assisted, and analytical techniques to measure pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, PCBs, heavy metals, organometallic compounds, and radionuclides in marine samples were tested and adopted. Throughout the years a Quality Assurance programme, which included frequent intercomparison exercises and production of marine reference materials, has also been implemented to improve the comparability of the data. Today, near two thirds of the Mediterranean States implement national marine monitoring programmes to assess water quality and contaminant concentrations. Results of the MED POL programme were embodied in the adoption by the Mediterranean countries of anti‐pollution measures (e.g., emission standards and/or water quality criteria related with mercury, cadmium, radioactive substances, bathing waters, shellfish waters). Trends in marine pollution are shown with data on mussels from the North west Mediterranean and show a reduction of pollutant discharges from land based sources in this area. However, basin wide integrated management of the Mediterranean Sea still requires regional coordinated efforts and increased analytical accuracy in pollution monitoring. The Analytical Quality Assurance has, therefore, a core role in the collaborative assessment of the contamination of the Mediterranean Sea.

"Relational Governance" for Marine Pollution Incidents in the Mediterranean: Transformations, Development and Prospects

AbstractThe recently launched revision process of the 1976 Emergency Protocol to the Barcelona Convention reveals, at the various stages of the negotiation process, that governance of marine pollution incidents in the Mediterranean can be effective if conceived as relational governance. As such, it refers to the optimisation of international common interest reflected within the over-embracing management of the vessel-source pollution in the Mediterranean where the contextual connections are effectively and efficiently brought together. The new relationol governance domain of the Mediterranean marine pollution incident regime, as emerges from the revision process of the 1976 Emergency Protocol, integrates both operational and accidental pollution and marks a distinct evolution of the Protocol management and accountability system. The latter is effected by an extensive amendment of the existing relational (procedural and substantive) duties, by introducing necessary innovative power-rights and duties, and by implying the general sustainable management and accountability of the amended Barcelona Convention. As the negotiations for the revision of the Protocol continue, the pattern of optimising international common interest in the prospective marine pollution incident regime could be enhanced in three directions: the reinforcement of the accountability of the contracting parties as flag states with respect to the enforcement of the relevant international conventions applied in the Mediterranean Sea, the promotion of port state control system in the Protocol regime, and the appropriate introduction of the jurisdiction of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea.

Protecting Public Health and the Environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle

Review: Protecting Public Health and the Environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle By Carolyn Raffesperger and Joel Tickner, eds. Reviewed by Susan Maret University of Colorado, Denver, USA Raffensperger, Carolyn, and Joel Tickner, eds. Protecting Public Health and the Environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle Washington, DC: Island Press, 1999. 352 pp. US$30.00. ISBN 1559636882. Recycled, acid-free paper. The Precautionary Principle has its roots in the German principle of Vorsorge, or foresight. In 1970s, the Vorsorgeprinzip (consideration before taking action) was introduced into German environmental law. The Principle was also written into numerous international treaties and conventions, including the Bergen Declaration on Sustainable Development, the Maastricht Treaty on the European Union, the Barcelona Convention, and the Global Climate Change Convention. Although not specifically mentioned in U.S. environmental laws, the spirit of precautionary action and foresight flows through the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). It was at the January 29, 1998 Wingspread Conference on the Precautionary Principle the idea of precautionary action was first formally discussed in the U.S. Scientists, policymakers, citizens, philosophers, and regulators representing a variety of groups and countries debated environmental and regulatory issues within the context of precautionary action. At the conclusion of the three-day conference, Wingspread participants issued a statement calling for governments, corporations, communities and scientists to implement the Precautionary Principle into regulatory policymaking. The gist of the Precautionary Principle is as follows: if a practice seems likely to harm the environment, even if proof of harm is not definitive, actions should be taken to eliminate or control the practice. It is within this framework that conference organizers Carolyn Raffensperger and Joel Tickner edited Protecting Public Health and the Environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle. Raffensperger is coordinator for the Science and Environmental Health Network, and Tickner, a research associate at the Lowell Center for Sustainable Production, University of Massachusetts, Lowell. This work is an important collection of essays on the Precautionary Principle

The concept of sustainable development in the mediterranean : emergence and recurrence

Abstract. The history ofthe relationship between man and nature, since time immemorial, sets the scene for studying issues related to sustainable development. Concepts of «carrying capacity» and «ecological impact» are not new, as is illustrated by the example of the use of water resources in Ancient Greece. The Mediterranean region is particularly sensitive to such problems, and the protection of the Mediterranean sea was one of the first results to emerge from the Stockholm Conference in 1972. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), born after the Conference, gave birth to the Mediterranean Action Plan, leading to the Barcelona Convention linking together twenty coastal states, as well as the European Union. In this framework, the Blue Plan was set up and designed to study the impacts on the environment of development and population growth. Several possible scenarios were set up, providing background material for the Earth Summit in Rio. The period between 1990 – 1995 saw the newly set up Mediterranean Commission dealing with issues relating to water (management, pollution), tourism (colonisation of natural sites, pressure on the environment) and sustainable management of coastal regions. Other points were also raised recently, such as sustainable urban development. However, this institutionalisation of environmental problems that happen at both the national and international levels, should not lead to a compromise Statement achieving nothing concrete. Indeed, the maintenance of environmental achievements and the definition of new concepts should allow sustainable development to move forward.

Geographical coverage and effectiveness of the UNEP Convention on the Mediterranean

The consideration of the regional scale, intended as a multi-national scale ( grand espace according to the French terminology), has acquired political importance because of three factors: 1. 1. the adoption of a regional approach by the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and the emerging need for a similar approach within Human Dimensions of Environmental Global Change Programme (HDEGCP), briefly called Human Dimensions Programme (HDP); 2. 2. the recommendations by Agenda 21, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992), to undertake sustainable development-aimed actions on all the scales, including the regional (multi-national) scale; 3. 3. the design and implementation of the Regional Seas Programme, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), which for the first time has dealt with ocean management on the regional scale. Moving from this basis, the Mediterranean region, i.e. the space extending from the Straits of Gibraltar to the Sea of Azov, has gained special geopolitical relevance, inter alia due to the geopolitical changes after the end of the cold war, the adoption of the UNEP Mediterranean Action Plan (1976) and its implementation (1995), in association with the Barcelona Convention (1976, amended in 1995), as well as the adoption of the Action Plan for the Black Sea (1994). In this context two crucial issues will be considered: (1) the geographical coverage of the UNEP/MAP Convention on the Mediterranean Sea and its role for the management of natural resource uses; and (2) the membership geographical coverage by which the Convention and its related protocols have been characterised. The combined analysis will lead us to focus on the efficacy of the Convention and the effectiveness of the subsequent political actions.

The Mediterranean Action Plan Phase II and the revised Barcelona Convention: new prospective for integrated coastal management in the Mediterranean region

This paper presents integrated coastal management (ICM) relevant information on the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and its hitherto and future involvement in the initiation and establishment of the ICM process in the region. The conceptual, legal and institutional basis of MAP, as established in 1975, is described. The MAP 1975–1995 period is characterized by a gradual refocusing from a programme for the protection of the marine environment towards a complex programme oriented at environmental protection of coastal areas and rational management of resources within the context of integrated planning and coastal management. The major ICM-related activities and achievements of MAP are presented and commented upon. The concept, contents and impacts on ICM of the revised Barcelona Convention and of the MAP Phase II documents, adopted in 1995, are presented and analyzed. Some prerequisites for a successful further involvement of MAP Phase II in ICM are listed. Finally, the organization of a Mediterranean Conference on ICM is proposed, as well as the opportunity of adoption of a MAP Protocol on ICM. The MAP Phase II programme, if properly implemented, should significantly contribute to the attainment of the critical momentum for the establishment and permanent implementation of the ICM process in all the countries of the region.

Education for sustainable development of the Mediterranean: the missing link

The author surveys some of the principal amendments to the Barcelona system adopted at the Ninth Ordinary Meeting of Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention in June 1995 and underlines the new national responsibilities for the implementation of the policy, legal and institutional changes in the direction of sustainable development. Emphasis is placed on the types of human resources that will be needed to facilitate implementation and render the regime effective at both national and regional levels. The author advocates a role for Mediterranean universities to assist regional regime-building through the development of relevant marine affairs education programmes in support of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP). A catalytic role for the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/MAP Coordinating Unit in mobilizing inter-university cooperation is also identified.

The role of the European Community in the Mediterranean coastal zone management

The objective of this paper is to focus on the role of the European Community (EC) in the management of the coastal zones of the Mediterranean. The EC performs this role at two levels of involvement: with respect to its Mediterranean member states and through the Euro-Mediterranean co-operation, in co-ordination with international and regional initiatives, such as those of the United Nations (Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP)) and the World Bank. According to this, the coastal policy of the EC is considered with special attention to past and current developments, and the main policy objectives and instruments are discussed. This review is followed by a brief analysis of the EC Mediterranean coastal zone: the general use and development patterns, the main pressures bearing upon it, and its definition from a legal and administrative perspective. An evaluation of the role of the EC in the Mediterranean context then follows, with particular reference to the ongoing developments of the Euro-Mediterranean co-operation within MAP and the Barcelona Convention system. On this basis, conclusions are drawn on the need to improve the EC Mediterranean coastal policy through a strengthened integration between the various EC sectoral policies, and between these policies and the policies of the member states, and through an optimised co-ordination with MAP.

Regulation of toxic chemicals in the Mediterranean: the need for an adequate strategy

Recognising the need to regulate the impact of pollutants on the Mediterranean region, the Mediterranean States have formulated the Barcelona Convention and the protocols related to it. This incorporates commitments to reduce inputs of chemicals which have been retrospectively identified as harmful. In particular, the Convention has identified the organohalogens as a priority group. Any commitment, however, to reductions of chemical inputs assumes a comprehensive framework within which both these and the effects of control measures can be reliably quantified. There are a number of shortcomings which can be identified in existing systems in the Mediterranean region. Effluents, even with respect to the organohalogen group, are extremely complex in character. In the region as a whole, monitoring efforts are limited. Existing programmes do not allow input or input reduction data to be computed with adequate statistical power, or chemical phase-outs to be verified. This paper highlights some of the practical problems encountered with reference to organohalogen compounds and the advantages of regulating these compounds as a group. Analytical results from two case studies in the Mediterranean are presented to illustrate this and the results are discussed in relation to alternative strategies.

Regional level implementation of Chapter 17: the UNEP approach to the Mediterranean

The Mediterranean was the first sea in which the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Regional Seas Programme was initiated. An Action Plan was launched (1975) and a Convention was adopted (1976) to pursue, on the regional scale, the goals defined by the UN Conference on the Human Environment (1972). In 1995 the Mediterranean was the first sea to move towards a sustainable development-aimed programme by the adoption of a new Convention, legally regarded as the amendment of the 1976 Convention, and the correlated adoption of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), Phase II. Thus, the Mediterranean has always served as an arena in which to define goals and targets and to design legal and institutional tools. In the current phase it is useful to focus on the evolution of the Mediterranean co-operation carried out in the framework of the Regional Seas Programme putting it in relation to the goals designed by, as well as the crucial issues highlighted in, Chapter 17 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Agenda 21. In this respect, the innovative role of the new system consisting of the 1995 Convention and the Mediterranean Action Plan, Phase II, is presented and discussed and its basic effectiveness is evaluated as regards the decision-making process through which it has been designed, the role of its geographical coverage and that of the existing framework of maritime national jurisdictional zones. Moving from this, the subject areas that UNCED Agenda 21, Chapter 17, assumed as closely relevant to the pursuit of sustainable development of the ocean, including regional seas, are considered on the Mediterranean scale with the aim of realising how and to what extent they are being effectively pursued. This analysis, carried out with close reference to the materials from the Ninth Ordinary Meeting of the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention (Barcelona, 5–8 June 1995) and the Conference of the Plenipotentiaries on the Barcelona Convention (Barcelona, 9–10 June 1995), leads us to believe that the complexity of the Convention/MAP system, together with the different attitudes from the Mediterranean states, while giving shape to the prospects of promising outcomes, is characterised by increasing risks of a decline of effectiveness.

The MEDCOAST Initiative: contributing towards sustainable development of coastal and sea resources of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea

The First International Conference on the Mediterranean Coastal Environment, MEDCOAST '93, was held in Antalya (Turkey) on 2-5 November 1993, and attracted about 140 participants from 26 countries. A total of 91 papers was presented in 28 sessions covering a variety of topics, ranging from those of a scientific and technological nature, through policy and law issues, to conservation efforts and management experiences. The papers, a great majority of them directly addressing Mediterranean and Black Sea problems, were published in the twovolume proceedings. Selected papers are now in the process of being peer-reviewed for publication in a special issue of Ocean and Coastal Management. In the closing session of the conference, it was unanimously approved that the MEDCOAST conferences be held every two years, in a Mediterranean/Black Sea town, to provide a forum for information exchange among various parties involved in coastal and sea management, and to discuss national experiences and contribute to regional efforts, such as those of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) Black Sea Environmental Program. The MEDCOAST International Committee and the MEDCOAST Permanent Secretariat were formed to look after the future conferences. The next conference, MEDCOAST '95, will be held in Spain, to parallel the Meeting of the Contracting Parties of the Mediterranean Action Plan which convened in Barcelona on 5-10 June 1995, to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Mediterranean Action Plan which became operational with the Barcelona Convention. The MEDCOAST '95 conference is being organized with the support and sponsorship of all major international organizations having interest

Debate Over Phaseout of Chlorine, Chlorinated Organics Continues

During the past two months, the debate over whether to phase out the use and production of chlorine and chlorinated organics as a broad class of chemicals has continued on a number of fronts. This question was the major focus of discussion at the recent biennial meeting in Windsor Ontario, of the International Joint Commission (IJC)--a binational group that oversees implementation of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement. Just prior to the meeting, the governments of the US and Canada presented their views on this issue, and it was the topic most of the speakers discussed during the organized sessions and public hearings. IJC is working on its seventh Biennial Report, which will be completed shortly after the first of the year. The very large comprehensive study on the health and environmental effects of chlorinated organics being prepared by CanTox, a consulting group in Mississauga, Ontario, for CCC and the Chlorine Institute was originally scheduled to be published in June. It is now slated for release sometime in early 1994, and the conference on the health and environmental effects of chlorinated organics that was to be sponsored by CCC and held in September of this year was canceled and hasmore » not been rescheduled. The movement to phase out chlorine also may be gathering momentum in Europe. On Oct 15, the 21 nations party to the Barcelona Convention on pollution of the Mediterranean recommended that their governments phase out toxic, persistent, and bioaccumulative substances, especially organohalogens (which include organochlorine), by 2005. This action is similar to proposals made in September 1992 by the Paris Commission, which oversees discharges of pollutants in the northeast Atlantic Ocean.« less