Barcelona Convention Research Articles

Impacts of Marine Litter on Mediterranean Reef Systems: From Shallow to Deep Waters

Biogenic reefs are known worldwide to play a key role in benthic ecosystems, enhancing biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at every level, from shallow to deeper waters. Unfortunately, several stressors threaten these vulnerable systems. The widespread presence of marine litter represents one of these. The harmful effects of marine litter on several organisms are known so far. However, only in the last decade, there was increasingly scientific and public attention on the impacts on reef organisms and habitats caused by litter accumulating on the seafloor. This review aims to synthesize literature and discuss the state of current knowledge on the interactions between marine litter and reef organisms in a strongly polluted basin, the Mediterranean Sea. The multiple impacts (e.g., entanglement, ghost-fishing, coverage, etc.) of litter on reef systems, the list of species impacted, and the main litter categories were identified, and a map of the knowledge available so far on this topic was provided. Seventy-eight taxa resulted impacted by marine litter on Mediterranean reefs, and the majority belonged to the phylum Cnidaria (41%), including endangered species like the red coral (Corallium rubrum) and the madrepora coral (Madrepora oculata). Entanglement, caused mainly by abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG), was the most frequent impact, playing a detrimental effect mainly on coralligenous arborescent species and cold-water corals (CWCs). The information was spatially heterogeneous, with some areas almost uncovered by scientific studies (e.g., the Aegean-Levantine Sea and the Southern Mediterranean Sea). Although many legal and policy frameworks have been established to tackle this issue (e.g., Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the Barcelona Convention), several gaps still exist concerning the assessment of the impact of marine litter on marine organisms, and in particular on reefs. There is a need for harmonized and standardized monitoring protocols for the collection of quantitative data to assess the impact of litter on reefs and animal forests. At the same time, urgent management measures limiting, for instance, the impact of ALDFG and other marine litter are needed to preserve these valuable and vulnerable marine ecosystems.

Challenges in Harmonized Assessment of Heavy Metals in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas

The Adriatic-Ionian region (ADRION Region) shows strong development in terms of urban expansion in coastal and inland areas as well as increasing maritime traffic and offshore hydrocarbon extraction activities. A serious risk of pollution arises from hazardous substances requiring reliable and coherent monitoring and assessment programmes. EU Directives (WFD - Water Framework Directive, MSFD - Marine Strategy Framework Directive) and Barcelona Convention protocols, aim to assess the level of pollution with the objective to implement measures to prevent and/or mitigate impacts on the marine environment. This high level integration process has to be based on common and agreed protocols for monitoring of contaminants. Aiming to share best practices to encourage a harmonized implementation of monitoring and assessment of contaminants, an extensive review of monitoring and analytical protocols adopted by six EU and non-EU countries along the Adriatic and Ionian seas was carried out in the framework of the Interreg Adrion project HarmoNIA. This paper presents a methodological proposal to define a common protocol for the evaluation of the metal contamination of seawater, sediment and biota. Contaminants have been chosen following preliminary consultations among countries of the ADRION area, considering objectives of WFD and MSFD, as well as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedures for offshore platforms. Information was gathered relative to matrix characteristics and quality assurance/quality control of the analytical performance (sample preservation, analytical methodology, reference materials, limit of detection and limit of quantification, accuracy, reproducibility, etc.). The comparison of information provided by laboratories of nine institutions highlighted the request for harmonization in terms of sampling procedures, matrix characterization, preservation procedures, analytical methods and LOQ values. Although appropriate environmental quality standards for biota and sediment matrices should be established at national level and also through regional and sub-regional cooperation, as required by the WFD and MSFD, the proposed LOQ values, even if challenging, represent a benchmark and a stimulus to optimize analytical performance, to ensure the best level of protection to the coastal and offshore environment in the ADRION Region.

Challenges in Harmonized Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Monitoring and Decommissioning Procedures of Offshore Platforms in Adriatic-Ionian (ADRION) Region

A harmonized and integrated approach for monitoring and assessment of contamination, including hydrocarbon exploitation one, is required both by Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) at EU level and by the Ecosystem Approach (EcAp) program of the Barcelona Convention at Mediterranean level. A broad review of protocols of environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedures, monitoring and decommissioning of offshore platforms adopted by EU and non-EU countries along the Adriatic-Ionian seas was carried out in the framework of the Interreg offshore platforms in Adriatic-Ionian (ADRION) project HarmoNIA (Harmonization and networking for contaminant assessment in the Ionian and Adriatic Seas). The comparison of information provided by six ADRION countries and the application of a harmonized and integrated approach has highlighted specific challenges for managing offshore platform impacts emerged at ADRION level: (i) need of the same legislative level (the Offshore Protocol of Barcelona Convention is not ratified by all countries); (ii) set up of a task force of ADRION experts for discussing critical issues related to impacts of offshore platforms; (iii) harmonization, at the regional level, of EIA procedures, monitoring and decommissioning; (iv) need of an agreed and common list of recommended parameters to monitor in water, sediment and biota for the assessment of impacts due to platform installations and PFW discharges.

Underprotected Marine Protected Areas in a Global Biodiversity Hotspot

Summary Ocean health is critical for human well-being but is threatened by multiple stressors. Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity agreed to protect 10% of their waters by 2020. The scientific evidence supporting the use of marine protected areas (MPAs) to conserve biodiversity stems primarily from knowledge on fully protected areas, but most of what is being established is partially protected. Here, we assess the protection levels of the 1,062 Mediterranean MPAs. While 6.01% of the Mediterranean is covered by protection, 95% of this area shows no difference between the regulations imposed inside the MPAs compared with those outside. Full and high levels of protection, the most effective for biodiversity conservation, represent only 0.23% of the basin and are unevenly distributed across political boundaries and eco-regions. Our current efforts are insufficient at managing human uses of nature at sea, and protection levels should be increased to deliver tangible benefits for biodiversity conservation.

Assessment and Comparison of Commonly Used Eutrophication Indexes

Eutrophication is a phenomenon that causes the degradation of the water quality which results in negative impacts on living and non-living environment of the water body. Therefore, monitoring, evaluation and classification of water quality is the utmost importance for policy makers and regional institutions/organizations in order to be able to assess the quality and sustainability of water bodies and take timely and relevant measures for its rehabilitation when and where required. Regional conventions such as the Helsinki Convention, Oslo-Paris Convention, Barcelona Convention – Programme for the Assessment and Control of Marine Pollution in the Mediterranean, Strategic Action Programme and Integrated Coastal Zone Management as well as legislative instruments such as the Water Framework Directive, Marine Strategy Framework Directive, Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive and Nitrate Directive in Europe; the Clean Water Act, Water Quality Act, National Environmental Policy and Coastal Zone Management Act issued by the United State Environmental Protection Agency in the United States, addressed the importance of eutrophication monitoring. The eutrophication indexes have been developed in line with regional requirements by using specific data sets of state variables and parameters, representative of a location. In this study, we reviewed the commonly used eutrophication indexes worldwide within the areas applied, parameters, methods and classification scales and presented trophic level equivalence between the indexes. We expected to provide the researchers with comprehensive approaches related to eutrophication indexes while evaluating the trophic status of a water body.

Geopolitics and Marine Conservation: Synergies and Conflicts

Transboundary conservation has an important, yet often undervalued, role in the international conservation regime. When applied to the legally ambiguous and interconnected marine environment this is magnified. The lack of clear guidance for transboundary marine conservation from the international conservation community exacerbates this problem, leaving individual initiatives to develop their own governance arrangements. Yet, well-managed transboundary marine protected areas (MPAs) have the potential to contribute significantly to global conservation aims. Conversely, in a period where there is increasing interest in marine resources and space from all sectors, the designation of MPAs can create or amplify a regional conflict. In some instances, states have used MPAs to extend rights over disputed marine resources, restrict the freedom of others and establish sovereignty over maritime space. Six case studies were taken from Europe, North Africa and the Middle East to illustrate how states have interpreted and utilised different legislative mechanisms to either come together or diverge over the governance of marine resources or maritime space. Each of the case studies illustrates how different actors have used the same legislative tools, but with different interpretations and applications, to justify their claims. It is clear that the role of science combined with a deeper engagement with stakeholders can play a critical role in tempering conflict between states. Where states are willing to cooperate, the absence of clear guidelines at the global level means that often ad hoc measures are put into place, with the international frameworks then playing catch up. Balancing different jurisdictional claims with the conservation of the marine environment, whilst considering the increasing special economic interests will become increasingly difficult. Developing a transboundary conservation tool, such as the simple conservation caveats found in the Barcelona Convention and Antarctic Convention, which allow for the establishment of intergovernmental cooperation without prejudicing any outstanding jurisdictional issue, would provide a framework for the development of individual transboundary MPAs.

Assessing the environmental status of temperate mesophotic reefs: A new, integrated methodological approach

Temperate mesophotic reefs (circalittoral and offshore circalittoral hard/firm habitats), host complex three-dimensional animal forests and are vulnerable habitats protected by international agreements. In order to evaluate and monitor the environmental status of these ecosystems, the multi-parametric index Mesophotic Assemblages Conservation Status (MACS) was developed, including two independent components, namely Index of Status (Is) and Index of Impact (Ii). The Is includes six metrics, targeting conspicuous species diversity, basal layer and canopy composition, whilst the Ii is composed by six metrics targeting siltation level, canopy condition and marine litter occurrence. Underwater video transects recorded with a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) along the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian Seas offered the chance to test the index on a large geographic scale and various ecological settings, for a total of 14 sites subjected to different human pressures. MACS index showed a high potentiality to distinguish among a wide range of environmental conditions, with local critical situations mainly related to high fishing pressure. With respect to other existing indices, MACS is based on a larger number of parameters, resulting in a higher ability to disentangle natural and anthropogenic factors, hence it leads to a better interpretation of local situations. This tool represents a contribution to the requirements for the monitoring of these marine environments, set by the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive, the Habitats Directive, and the guidelines of the Integrated Monitoring and Assessment Programme of the Mediterranean Sea and Coast of the Barcelona Convention.

Spain and Marine Protected Areas: Recent Developments

Abstract Spain has just declared a new marine protected area in the Mediterranean. This follows a protective trend taken by Spanish authorities during the last decades and has permitted Spain to honour its international compromises under the Convention on Biological Diversity. It contributes to a framework of protected areas established under conventional regimes such as OSPAR, RAMSAR or EU Natura 2000. The new area protects a ‘cetacean corridor’ and will be inscribed in the list of Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance under the Barcelona Convention regional framework.

Gene pool and connectivity patterns of Pinna nobilis in the Balearic Islands (Spain, Western Mediterranean Sea): Implications for its conservation through restocking

Abstract Pinna nobilis is an endemic bivalve of the Mediterranean Sea, and a vulnerable species registered as endangered and protected under the European Council Directive 92/43/EEC and Barcelona Convention. In early autumn 2016, a mass mortality event impacted P. nobilis populations in the south‐western Mediterranean Sea, including the Balearic Islands. At the time of this study, P. nobilis still maintained high population densities along the Balearic coasts (Western Mediterranean). This study evaluated the connectivity of P. nobilis post‐larvae and adults in seagrass habitats around the Balearic Islands and identified its source and sink populations. These objectives were reached through a multidisciplinary approach including population genetics (10 microsatellites) and hydrodynamic modelling. High genetic diversity was found and significant genetic differentiation (inferred by fixation index FST) was detected between post‐larvae samples, but not between adult populations. Significant genic and genotypic differentiation was recorded for adults and post‐larvae. This pattern was confirmed by correspondence analysis using allele frequencies. The genetic connectivity pattern was consistent with marine currents and dispersal models. This work not only improves knowledge of the P. nobilis gene pool in south‐west Mediterranean populations and their connectivity patterns, but is also crucial to help evaluate the possibility of recovery from source populations and the possibility of restocking programmes, as well as provide a solid base to establish effective marine reserve networks.

Assessing the regional conservation status of sponges (Porifera): the case of the Aegean ecoregion

Sponges are among the less-studied benthic invertebrates as regards their extinction risk and conservation status. Herein, we evaluate the regional conservation status of sponges in the Aegean ecoregion (Eastern Mediterranean Sea), using the IUCN Red List criteria. We examined 20 sponge taxa falling into three categories: i) threatened species listed in Annex II of the Barcelona Convention, ii) bath sponge species (Annex III of the Barcelona Convention), and iii) Aegean endemics. The regional geographic range of the examined taxa was depicted on detailed distribution maps, based mostly on recent observations by the authors and literature data. When possible, population trends were estimated based on historical data, and threats were identified. The suggested regional conservation status of the examined sponge species is as follows: i) nine species were characterised as ‘Data Deficient (DD)’ due to limited available information; ii) seven species were assigned to the ‘Least Concern (LC)’ category; iii) the four harvested bath sponge species were assigned to the Endangered (EN) category, based on their population decline in the Aegean region during the past decades. The present evaluation, besides providing scientific data for the regional protection and management of sponge populations, can form a basis for wider assessment and consequent conservation of Porifera.

Trade asymmetries in the Mediterranean basin

The paper examines the evolution of European Union's trade asymmetries across the Mediterranean basin, by highlighting the impact of the 1995 Barcelona convention's free trade agreements. Asymmetry is gauged by measuring the speed of trade openness convergence paths between the Mediterranean North and South. The EU's Southern Mediterranean partners' reaction to their free trade agreements is examined with a series of convergence tests, accounting for endogeneity and instrumenting with spatial geographic matrices and geopolitical dummy variables. It is revealed that following the European Union's 1995 free trade initiatives the trade asymmetry between Middle Eastern and North African countries and their Northern counterparts becomes more asymmetric, ratifying Prebisch-Singer's empirical hypothesis.

Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta): A target species for monitoring litter ingested by marine organisms in the Mediterranean Sea

Marine litter is any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment. Ingestion of marine litter can have lethal and sub-lethal effects on wildlife that accidentally ingests it, and sea turtles are particularly susceptible to this threat. The European Commission drafted the 2008/56/EC Marine Strategy Framework Directive with the aim to achieve a Good Environmental Status (GES), and the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta, Linnaeus 1758) was selected for monitoring the amount and composition of litter ingested by marine animals. An analogous decision has been made under the UNEP/MAP Barcelona Convention for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea, following the Ecosystem Approach. This work provides for the first time, two possible scenarios for the Marine Strategy Framework Directive GES, both related to “Trends in the amount and composition of litter ingested by marine animals” in the Mediterranean Sea. The study validates the use of the loggerhead turtle as target indicator for monitoring the impact of litter on marine biota and calls for immediate use of this protocol throughout the Mediterranean basin and European Region. Both GES scenarios are relevant worldwide, where sea turtles and marine litter are present, for measuring the impact of ingested plastics and developing policy strategies to reduce it. In the period between 2011 and 2014, 150 loggerhead sea turtles, found dead, were collected from the Italian Coast, West Mediterranean Sea Sub-Region. The presence of marine litter was investigated using a standardized protocol for necropsies and lab analysis. The collected items were subdivided into 4 main categories, namely, IND-Industrial plastic, USE-User plastic, RUB-Non plastic rubbish, POL-Pollutants and 14 sub-categories, to detect local diversity. Eighty-five percent of the individuals considered (n = 120) were found to have ingested an average of 1.3 ± 0.2 g of litter (dry mass) or 16 ± 3 items.

Revealing the potential of maritime transport for ‘Blue Economy’ in the Adriatic-Ionian Region

Maritime transport is amongst the most important drivers of change in the state of coastal and marine environment of the Mediterranean Sea. Recent studies on Maritime Spatial Planning and Blue Growth and economy reveal the significance of maritime transport both in socioeconomic and environmental terms. The objective of the present paper is to estimate the importance of maritime transport for the economy, society and environment of the region and assess the legal and policy framework under which maritime transport is developed and regulated. The analysis focuses on the Adriatic-Ionian Region (AIR). The paper builds upon existing policy and value estimation methodologies in order to develop an integrated assessment tool which can lead to a comparative evaluation of maritime transport against other drivers of the region. The effectiveness of the policy and legal framework in addressing the needs of maritime transport is then analyzed and assessed through the use of specific indicators. The integrated socio-economic and environmental analysis revealed that maritime transport is the second most important factor of change in the AIR following coastal and maritime tourism. Additionally, the analysis of the legal and policy framework led to the conclusion that a more effective integration of planning and strategic documents should be achieved. Maritime transport has often been addressed by important policy initiatives such as the European Union Strategy for the Adriatic and Ionian Region (EUSAIR) and the Barcelona Convention for the protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal region of the Mediterranean. The results of the present paper constitute a useful input for the broader European initiative to reveal maritime potential and establish a development framework of the so called “Blue Economy”.

The Cyprus coastal heritage landscapes within Marine Spatial Planning process

Abstract In many cases, antiquities are threatened due to the lack of a spatial planning that takes into consideration the sensitivity of these sites. As with in land sites, spatial planning is needed for coastal and sea sites too, in order to design current and future activities. The recently (2014) adopted Marine Spatial Planning directive (Directive 2014/89/EU) will be implemented – for the first time – by all EU member states by 2020. The specific goal of this directive is to establish a framework for maritime spatial planning (MSP) aiming to foster coordinated and coherent decision-making, to maximize the sustainable development, economic growth and social cohesion. For these tasks, MSP should take into consideration the protection of cultural heritage (both underwater and coastal) as well to intensify integrated planning for coastal areas. In addition, the European marine region of Mediterranean Sea adheres the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean adopted in 1995, with Cyprus being one of the 22 Contracting Parties. MSP can be extremely complicated since a variety of activities need to be planned keeping at the same time a balance from one hand between the ecosystem, cultural and natural Heritage and on the other economic growth. Within this framework, the present paper discusses the assessment and evaluation of Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) related to the pressures to historical and archaeological coastal sites in Cyprus, using Geographical Information Systems (GIS). As evidenced from the present study, MSP is an efficient strategic way for protecting known CH sites, as well as for future prevention and safeguarding of either known or unknown (i.e. unexcavated) sites, by reallocating various activities potentially threatening CH monuments and landscapes, both marine and littoral.

Water Management in the Mediterranean Region: Concepts and Policies

The Mediterranean Region exhibits significant contrasts in its demographic and hydrologic features that have shaped the water management policies of the Mediterranean countries. Although awareness is raising with respect to sustainable water management, the extent to which it is applied in practice is debatable. Use conflicts and non-renewable water extraction in water scarce part of the region like the Southern and Eastern rim countries are exposed as overriding management issues. Furthermore climatic variations are superimposed on natural hydro-stress and water dependency on external resources in most of the cases. Decision-making process needs measurable, comparable and reliable tools in order to be able to make trade-offs when facing conflicting issues. Indicators are valuable tools for understanding the trends and challenges encountered in water resources management. The Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention adopted, in November 2005, the Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD). Integrated water resources and demand management constitute the first priority among the range of actions of the adopted strategy. Increasing efficiency by reducing losses and wasteful use is expected to help stabilise water demand in the Southern and Eastern part of the Mediterranean countries. In this paper, an assessment of the existing water management concepts and policies in Mediterranean countries will be presented based on sustainable development indicators related to water management.

On two new records of rare Cystoseira taxa (Fucales, Phaeophyceae) from Greece (Eastern Mediterranean)

Abstract Two Mediterranean Cystoseira taxa, namely Cystoseira foeniculacea f. schiffneri and Cystoseira funkii, are added to the macroalgal flora of Greek seas, both of them being described for the first time in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Descriptions, photographs, habitat type and distribution details, as well as brief notes, are provided for each taxon. Both taxa are rare, protected by the Barcelona Convention, and were found within three Natura 2000 marine Sites of Community Importance, highlighting the importance of establishing and enforcing site-specific management measures to ensure conservation of these rare, Mediterranean endemic, and little known taxa.

An Ecosystem Approach for understanding status and changes of Nador lagoon (Morocco): application of food web models and ecosystem indices

The work applies food web models to the Lagoon of Nador (Morocco) and subsequently estimates ecosystem indices. This effort supports the evaluation of the ecosystem status and the implementation of the Ecosystem Approach (EcAp), endorsed by the contracting parties of the Barcelona Convention for the Mediterranean Sea. The Lagoon of Nador, on the Mediterranean coast of Morocco, suffered from eutrophication during recent decades. We used indices derived from Ecological Network Analysis for investigating the most relevant features of ecosystem functioning in the decade 2000−2010 (present scenario), and comparing them with those of the 1980s (past scenario). As the Lagoon includes different habitats, the methodology was applied to each of them, in order to assess their contribution to the functioning of the whole ecosystem. Results highlighted an increase in Total System Throughput (TST) in the present scenario when compared with the past one, also associated to an increase of Total Respiration (TR) and of the ratio between Total Primary Production and Total Respiration (TPP/TR). Under the present scenario Nador lagoon shows a decreased cycling efficiency. The sensitivity analysis highlighted the capability of TST and Comprehensive Cycling Index (CCI) in detecting changes, in agreement with other recent studies on responses of food web functioning to eutrophication. The results are discussed in respect to three specific aspects, related with the application of food Web Models and Ecological Network Analysis in the EcAp context: i) data availability; ii) spatialization of indicators; iii) selected set of indicators. The results also highlight the important role of sensitivity/uncertainty analysis when implementing food web models in data-scarce systems.

East is east and West is west? Management of marine bioinvasions in the Mediterranean Sea

At 726 the number of recorded multicellular non indigenous species (NIS) in the Mediterranean Sea is far higher than in other European Seas. Of these, 614 have established populations in the sea. 384 are considered Erythraean NIS, the balance are mostly ship and culture-introductions. In order to effectively implement EU Regulation on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive NIS and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive in the Mediterranean Sea it is crucial that this priority pathway is appropriately managed. Three potential impediments – incomplete and inaccurate data; unknown impacts; policy mismatch – hinder implementation. Current geographical, taxonomical and impact data gaps will be reduced only by instituting harmonized standards and methodologies for monitoring NIS populations in all countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, prioritizing bridgehead sites and dispersal hubs. The option of implementing European environmental policies concerning marine NIS in member states alone may seem expedient, but piecemeal protection is futile. Since only 9 of the 23 states bordering the Mediterranean are EU member states, the crucial element for an effective strategy for slowing the influx of NIS is policy coordination with the Regional Sea Convention (Barcelona Convention) to ensure consistency in legal rules, standards and institutional structures to address all major vectors/pathways.

Modelling the spatial distribution of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica along the North African coast: Implications for the assessment of Good Environmental Status

Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile, 1813 is a seagrass species endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, which is considered as an indicator of environment quality in coastal areas. This species forms large meadows, which are sensitive to several anthropogenic pressures and the decrease in their extension is considered a priority issue for the Mediterranean Sea. The aim of this study was to develop a Species Distribution Model for P. oceanica, to be applied to the Mediterranean North African coast, in order to obtain an estimation of the potential distribution of this species in the region. The Species Distribution Model was calibrated using high resolution data from 4 Mediterranean sites, located in Italy and Spain, as the study area is a data-poor zone with regard to seagrass distribution (i.e. only for some areas detailed distribution maps are available). The model was then validated using available data concerning the North African coast. The probability of presence of the species in a given area was modelled using a binomial generalized linear model as a function of the bathymetry and water transparency, dissolved organic matter, sea surface temperature and salinity, mainly obtained from satellite data. Model selection procedure suggests that water transparency plays a major role, but also other variables, such as salinity and sea surface temperature, are important at larger spatial scales in explaining meadows distribution. The availability of high resolution time-series of input data allowed us to apply the validated model to the whole North African coast. Suitable areas are strongly related to the coastal realm, and cover a large portion of North African coasts, with Tunisian and Lybian ones being the most relevant zones for this species. In particular, the shelf of the Gulf of Gabes includes large areas with environmental conditions suitable for the species. Based on model predictions, we developed a robust indicator of potential habitat suitability, which could be used for the assessment of Good Environmental Status, as requested by the Ecosystem Based Approach, to be implemented at the scale of the whole Mediterranean basin in the framework of the Barcelona Convention.

Free Trade Agreements Diverging Trade Flow Policies: Evidence from the Mediterranean Basin

We examine the evolution of European Union’s trade regionalism across the Mediterranean in the context of the trade openness implications of the Prebisch-Singer hypothesis. We outline the impact of the 1995 Barcelona convention’s free trade agreement on trade openness convergence between the northern and southern Mediterranean counterparts, using a series convergence tests, accounting for endogeneity and instrumenting with spatial geographic matrices. The majority of southern Mediterranean partner countries reverse their convergent trade openness path, following the European Union’s 1995 free trade initiatives, ratifying Prebisch-Singer’s hypothesis.