Ball Clay Research Articles

Production and Quality Analysis of Evaporating Dish Using Local Materials

Evaporating dish was produced using raw materials such as kaolin, quartz, ball clay and talc that were sourced from Agaie, Kutigi, Kagara and Kadna respectively in Niger state. A control sample was produced using 30% feldspar, 5% quartz, 27% kaolin, 37% plastic clay and 1% talc, while all other samples were formulated by varying the compositions to compare with the control sample. The milled and mixed samples were casted and fired at a temperature of 1250°C. Physical examinations such as linear shrinkage, bulk density, water absorption was carried out on all the samples produced, while mechanical test such as failing load was also carried out on all the samples. The outcome of all the tests shows that the locally manufactured evaporating dish satisfied the qualities required of an evaporating dish for laboratory use.

Investigating the Production Quality of Electrical Porcelain Insulators from Local Materials

Electrical porcelain insulators were manufactured from Agai and Kutigi Clay and other locally available raw material i.e. Feldspar (Kagara), Quartz (Kadna) and Talc (Kagara). Compositions were formulated using a universal triaxial porcelain composition (kaolin, 28%; ball clay, 10%; feldspar, 35% and quartz, 25%) to produce test pieces. The pulverized and mixed compositions were molded and fired at a temperature of 1250°C. The physical and electrical properties were investigated. The results show that the samples have electrical resistance between 3.52 x 108 Ω and 2.05 x 109 Ω, and dielectric constant between 8.7 and 11.4, with respect to the frequency considered. The results of the physical tests i.e. linear shrinkage, bulk density, water absorption and failing load were also in agreement with the standard for porcelain insulators.

Beneficiation of Sugarcane Bagasse Boiler Ash via Production of Syntactic Foams and Thermal Refractory Materials

Aqueous solutions of sodium polytungstate were used to fractionate samples of sugarcane bagasse ash by heavy media separation. Practically no cenospheres were recovered from the ash samples. The method was successful in separating fibrous carbonaceous particles with a uniform surface from particles containing more silica and having a less uniform surface. A geopolymer refractory brick having satisfactory durability was produced from sugarcane bagasse ash with metakaolin and ball clay fillers and a sodium metasilicate/hydroxide activator liquor. Drying and firing shrinkage, bulk density and ultimate compressive strength tests were performed to determine the most feasible combination of ingredients. Geopolymer samples produced using aluminium powder instead of ball clay were found to be very brittle and unsuitable for refractory service.

The differences between alkaline- and alkaline-earth-flux effects on high-temperature phase change of clay based ceramic

Abstract The differences of the effects of alkaline (illitic clay, K and Ca-Na feldspar) and alkaline-earth flux additions (sepiolitic-dolomite, talc, huntite, hydromagnesite, magnesitic clay and Calcite) on the high-temperature-phases (HTP) of ceramic bodies derived from ball clay of Westerwald-(Germany) or Sile (Turkey) area were investigated. This investigation was carried out by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) attached with energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS). The type and amount of HTP do not only depend on the type and amount of flux additions alone but also depend on the optimal distribution of these flux cations which are largely determined by the extent of the mixing. No Cristobalite was present and secondary mullite and quartz were the only crystalline phases present in these bodies composed of 50 wt% illite KW and Westerwald ball clay HB or this mixture mixed with 20% K or Ca-Na feldspar. These additions render ≥2 wt% K2O in bulk chemical composition of these alkaline bodies and are enough to inhibit cristobalite formation. The identified major HTP in ceramic bodies derived from 15 wt% Ca carbonate and 5 wt% sepiolitic dolomite, or magnesitic clay or talc and Sile ball clay were identified only as melilite (gehlenite) and plagioclase (anorthite) group minerals. The pyroxene group minerals (protoenstatite, clinoenstatite, and diopside) occurred only in the body derived from Sile ball clay mixture mixed with >5 wt% Mg-Ca flux at over 1000 °C.

CHEMICAL CLEANING OF MICROFILTRATION CERAMIC MEMBRANE FOULED BY NOM

Microfiltration membrane made from Sayong ball clay by using uniaxial dry compaction method was used to treat natural organic matter (NOM) source water. A sintering temperature of 900 °C to 1000 °C were applied. The effect of sintering temperature on membrane porosity, strength and water flux were identified. The porosity of the membrane decreased with increasing sintering temperature and the strength and flux increased with temperature. The membrane was subjected to NOM filtration experiments. The results showed an improvement to the quality of permeate water, where there is a reduction in COD, TSS, BOD5, turbidity, hardness and salinity; and an increased pH value. The effect of chemical cleaning on the fouled membrane also was studied. After cleaning with NaOH solution, a high flux recovery was achieved (up to 50% from the initial pure water flux). The degree of cleanliness of fouled membranes after chemical cleaning was further observed with SEM and EDX analysis.

Investigation of gamma radiation shielding capability of two clay materials

Abstract The gamma radiation shielding capability (GRSC) of two clay-materials (Ball clay and Kaolin)of Southwestern Nigeria (7.49°N, 4.55°E) have been investigated by determine theoretically and experimentally the mass attenuation coefficient, μ/ρ (cm2g−1) of the clay materials at photon energies of 609.31, 1120.29, 1173.20, 1238.11, 1332.50 and 1764.49 keV emitted from 214Bi ore and 60Co point source. The mass attenuation coefficients were theoretically evaluated using the elemental compositions of the clay-materials obtained by Particle-Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) elemental analysis technique as input data for WinXCom software. While gamma ray transmission experiment using Hyper Pure Germanium (HPGe) spectrometer detector to experimentally determine the mass attenuation coefficients, μ/ρ (cm2g−1) of the samples. The experimental results are in good agreement with the theoretical calculations of WinXCom software. Linear attenuation coefficient (μ), half value layer (HVL) and mean free path (MFP) were also evaluated using the obtained μ/ρ values for the investigated samples. The GRSC of the selected clay-materials have been compared with other studied shielding materials. The cognizance of various factors such as availability, thermo-chemical stability and water retaining ability by the clay-samples can be analyzed for efficacy of the material for their GRSC.

Macro-encapsulation and characterization of chloride based inorganic Phase change materials for high temperature thermal energy storage systems

A novel approach involving the use of ceramic materials was investigated for encapsulating chloride based PCMs with melting points higher than 650 °C. Low-cost ceramics with excellent thermal and chemical stability under molten-salt conditions were identified as the encapsulants. The processing procedure for these materials was discerned by systematic porosity distribution and materials compatibility studies. The influence of sintering temperature on the reactivity of feldspar, ball clay, kaolin and the mixture thereof with molten sodium chloride was investigated by IR spectroscopy. The porosity of the sintered ceramic samples was analyzed through water and dye absorption tests, as well as SEM analysis. The results were used for developing an optimum ceramic capsule fabrication procedure, which involved the use of a green ceramic body followed by sintering at 1190 °C. Sodium chloride and its eutectic with potassium chloride were used as the PCMs. The selected PCM was poured into and filled the fabricated ceramic capsule through a hole which was sealed at a temperature close to or higher than the melting temperature of the PCM. The fabricated capsules have been tested and have survived more than 150 thermal cycles without showing degradation in their thermo-physical properties.

Fabrication and Characterization of Low Thermal Expansion Cordierite/Spodumene/Mullite Composite Ceramic for Cookware

Ceramic cookware can be taken a direct flame or stove top for the duration without damage. The selected materials must have low thermal expansion coefficient, high strength, low water absorption and high thermal shock resistance, reasonable in cost and easy to be produced. Cordierite and spodumene composite has been interested for ceramic cookware due to their fitted properties. In previous work, study in the cordierite-spodumene composite with low thermal expansion coefficient of 2.60 x 10-6 /°C when sintered at 1250 oC with a ratio of spodumene 60 wt% and cordierite 40 wt% can withstand the pot shape samples. However, the sample showed relatively high water absorption and low strength which was not appropriate for using in this application. In this research, mullite is added in the formula to improve strength and densification of ceramic composites. Spodumene, ball clay, calcined talc and calcined alumina are used as starting raw materials and formed by slip casting. All samples are sintered in a temperature range from 1250-1275 °C in an electric furnace. Water absorption and bulk density were tested by Archimedes method, modulus of rupture was tested by the three-point bending method, microstructure were investigated by SEM and the coefficient of thermal expansion was measured by dilatometer. It was found that the mullite phase was investigated when adding mullite more than 30 wt% in cordierite-spodumene composite.

Preparation of Porous Cylindrical Tubes Substrates from Zeolite and Clay for TiO<sub>2</sub> Photocatalyst Coating

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the one of photocatalyst materials that widely used for decolorization of organic compounds in wastewater by photocatalytic mechanism which can be activated by UV light. Unfortunately, in the case of fine TiO2 power, filtration of the powder after water treatment process is difficult. In this research, coating or immobilizing the TiO2 powder on substrates using for removing the color of lignin concentration is interesting. The objectives of this research are to prepare the floating porous cylindrical tube substrates composed of zeolite NaA and ball clay, and then to determine the efficiency of lignin degradation. Zeolite NaA powder, Suratthani ball clay and organic binder solution were mixed before extruding and cutting to be 1.5 cm diameter cylindrical tube with 2.5 cm in length and 0.3 cm in thickness. After that, the dried tubes were fired at 650 - 800 °C for 2 hours and were then coated with TiO2-P25 suspension before re-firing at 600 °C for 1 hour in an electrical furnace. The fired uncoated tubes were characterized in terms of phase composition, porosity and radial crush strength. From the XRD pattern of the tubes fired at 800 °C showed that the zeolite NaA phase was disappeared. On the other hand, the zeolite NaA phase was found in the samples fired at another lower temperature. For the coated tubes, polyurethane foam was filled into the hole to make the tubes can be floated on the water surface. After that, the photocatalyst degradation property by determining the decreasing of concentration of lignin solution under tungsten lamp irradiation of the floated tubes were tested.

Workability of clay mixtures

Abstract Raw clays undergo mixing for the manufacture of structural clay products and ball clays and kaolins are carefully selected, processed, stored and blended in various proportions to produce consistent formulations for the wide range of fine ceramic products. The effects of blending different clays with a range of proportions have been investigated on the Atterberg plasticity limits and on the toughness-water content relationships. It is demonstrated that blending of raw and processed clays with different mineralogy and plasticity properties can produce liquid and plastic limits and toughness-water content relationships that do not follow a linear interpolation between the individual properties of the clays in relation to their proportions. Mixing of high plasticity clay with a lower plasticity clay produced a wider range of water contents over which the mixtures remained plastic, particularly with lower water contents which would be desirable when considering shrinkage properties. However, this resulted in increased toughness and harder workability, a less desirable factor.

Use of mechanically-activated kaolin to replace ball clay in engobe for a ceramic tile

Abstract Ceramic engobe is an intermediate layer between the substrate and the glaze of a ceramic tile. It is basically composed by plastic material, clays, and non-plastic material, feldspar and frit. Light-colored clays with good plasticity and low-fire temperature are used in ceramic engobe formulations, typically ball clays. However, these clays contain different accessory minerals, which can adversely affect the opacity and the whiteness. The use of washed kaolin, with a lower content of accessory minerals, tends to lead to higher opacity and whiteness. In addition, its mechanical activation can increase the plasticity, allowing its use as a replacement for ball clay. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the use of mechanically-activated kaolin to replace ball clay in an engobe employed in the production of ceramic tiles. Samples of kaolin were activated by high energy mill (1 and 4 h, at 500 rpm) and characterized by surface area and particle size measurements, crystallography, infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. Cylindrical specimens of four ceramic engobe formulations were submitted to splitting tensile strength and bulk density tests. The specimens were fired in a laboratory kiln and characterized through the determination of water absorption, bulk density, relative density and by reflectance spectrophotometry. Crystallographic analysis with Rietveld refinement and microstructural analysis by scanning electron microscopy were also carried out. After the high energy milling, the kaolin had less crystallinity and the specific surface area increased from 4.6 to 46.1 m2/g. The use of mechanically-activated kaolin as a replacement for ball clay in a ceramic engobe increased the mechanical strength, crystalline phase content and whiteness.

Direct Photonic Fusion of Vitrified Bonding Materials

The purpose of this study is to show the effects of the direct fusion of raw materials used for vitrified grinding wheels by photonic interactions. The paper describes the construction of a sintering apparatus that employs a pulsed neodymium: yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser to fuse a combination of raw materials such as ball clay, feldspar, and borax to form a partially-crystalline glass material. The experimental results show that lasers can replace traditional methods of glass frit formation by fusing raw materials used in the manufacture of glass bonds for vitrified grinding wheels. X-ray diffraction data shows that a glass with short range order has formed using the new method. The work described herein provides a new avenue for glass frit formation applied to grinding wheel manufacture.

Ground granulated blast furnace slag to control alkali induced swell in kaolinitic soils

The failures of industrial buildings caused by alkali contamination of soils necessitate better understanding of their behaviour and proper control measures. In this paper an attempt has been made with GGBS to control the effect of alkali induced swell in kaolinitic soils. Three soils namely red earth, ball clay and china clay, which are non-swelling in nature and predominantly containing kaolinite mineral of varying amount, were considered for the study. Free swell tests were conducted on soils with 4N NaOH solution as pore fluid. The results showed that the dispersive nature of kaolinite clay particles under alkaline conditions along with mineral alterations resulted in the high swelling in kaolinitic soils. GGBS treated soils showed considerable reduction in swelling during alkali contamination and the percentage of GGBS required for controlling the swelling varied with the type of soil. The reduction in swelling with GGBS is attributed to the calcium alumina silicate mineral formations.

KAJIAN TEKNOLOGI PROSES DAN HARGA POKOK PRODUKSI MASSA COR “CN7” DENGAN SISTEM PEMBEBANAN BERBASIS AKTIVITAS, DAN IMPLIKASINYA TERHADAP HARGA TRANSFER DAN PERSEDIAAN

The aims of this research relate to casting massa“CN7” (40% SukaBumi Blend : 25% RRT Feldspar : 20% Caolin : 2,5% Ball Clay : 12,5% Cuarsa)were : (1) To determine process technology casting massa“CN7”; (2) To calculatecost of good manufactured; (3) To determine transfer price; and (4) To recognizedending inventory that reported on balance sheet. The research results shew that :(1) The process technology casting massa“CN7” according to production functionwere : weighting process,grussing process, mixing process, filtring process, andcarrying process; (2)Cost of good manufacturedcor massa“CN7” according toActivity Based Costing (ABC) systems was Rp 2.896,83 each unit, that followed byraw materal cost Rp 1.960,00, direct labour cost Rp 860,84, variable overhead costRp 39,89, and fixed overhead cost Rp 36,09; (3) The transfer price casting massa“CN7”according to full cost transfer pricing methodwas Rp 3.302,39each unit, thattransfer priceformed by cost of good manufactured Rp 2.896,83, operating expenseRp 289,68 (marketing expense Rp 173,81 and general & administration expense Rp115,87), and expected margin Rp 115,87; and (4) Ending inventory casting massa“CN2” according to specific identification method was Rp 434.524,50.

Ceramic behavior of ball clay with gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3) addition

The effect of the addition of gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3) in the thermal behavior of a (66%) kaolinitic ball clay was studied and compared with the pure clay.The incorporation of Gd2O3 is of technological interest for the design of smart ceramic proppants used for unconventional gas and oil well stimulation. This proppant material is used to obtain important information, such as the location and height of the created hydraulic fractures.The studied comprised a set of thermal analysis up to 1400°C and the sintering behavior of the clay, up to 5% addition. The developed texture and microstructure was also assessed.No important effects in kaolinite dehydration temperature and mullites (primary and secondary) formation were observed (500–600 and 990°C). The sintering range of the studied clay is 1080–1360°C; the 5% wt. addition resulted in 80°C decrease of the final sintering temperature.Mixtures fired at 1250 and 1400°C resulted in dense ceramic materials with mullite as principal crystalline phase accompanied by quartz and cristobalite; imbibed in a viscous glassy phase which was proportionally increased by the added oxide. The mullite content and cell parameters were not affected. No gadolinium containing binary or ternary crystalline phases were detected, inferring that the rare earth is dissolved by the active viscous glassy phase thermally formed from the clay crystalline phases.Low concentration addition of the oxide did not affect the porosity or water absorption of the developed ceramics. Only the 5% wt. addition resulted in a slightly higher de-sinterization with the appearance of macro-porosity if fired at 1400°C.

Ceramic porcelain stoneware production with Spanish clays purified by means of the removal of iron compounds and organic matter using physical methods

As the production of ceramic porcelain stoneware in Spain is totally conditioned by the importation of ball clays, because of the lack of adequate Spanish ball clays, this work has focused on the formulation of ceramic porcelain body from Spanish clays purified by means of physical removal processes. This method was applied to three Spanish clays containing common clay impurities of iron (hematite and siderite) and organic matter. Iron removal was carried out using the wet sieve method, the hydrocycloning method and the electromagnetic filtering method, obtaining a reduction in iron content of up to 80wt%, while the clay containing organic matter was treated thermally at 400°C for 30min so as to leave it almost completely purified. These treated clays, after being characterized (chemical and mineralogical composition, plasticity, organic carbon, thermal behaviour and colour), were used in the porcelain stoneware body composition instead of imported clays, the result being a composition capable of substituting the standard porcelain stoneware formulation in terms of sintering, morphology, colour, flexural strength and dilatometry.

The Effect of Flux to Physical and Chemical Properties of Ceramic Body Using Ball Clay from Kampung Dengir, Besut, Terengganu

The fluxing agent usually used to reduce the sintering temperature of ceramic production. In order to achieve this study, the potassium feldspar had used as a fluxing agent in range between 15.2 - 42.5 %. The mixture of slurry was formulated by using ball clay, silica, polyethylene glycol and potassium feldspar to produce the ceramic pieces. The sample was prepared by aging the mixed clay with additives and aging for 24 hours before casting on the flat mould to form rectangular ceramic pieces. The body pieces then undergo thermal treatment at temperature of 800C, 900°C, 1000°C, 1100°C and 1200°C for 2 hours with heating rate 5°C/min as to study the effect of flux towards sintering behavior of the samples. The characterization of the samples was conduct in order to study the chemical composition of sample. The effect of the fluxing agent towards sintering temperature was evaluated in order to investigate the firing shrinkage, density, porosity and water absorption. The result shows at temperature of 1100°C with increasing the amount of flux, the firing shrinkage decreasing from 18 to 13 %. Increasing the amount of flux had decrease the porosity and water absorption of ceramic pieces and the density of the ceramic pieces almost uniform. The optimum amount of flux was 42.5% and sintering temperature was 1100°C.

Effect of Dispersant Addition on Properties of Ceramic Pieces from Kampung Dengir, Besut, Terengganu, Malaysia

The abundancy of ball clay can be transform into more useful form. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of different amount of dispersant on ceramic system. Ball clay from Kampung Dengir, Besut, Terengganu was used as starting powder while sodium silicate was used as dispersant to produce good flow ability, minimum viscosity and controllable ceramic slurry. Ceramic slurry was prepared by adding additives such as binder, flux, filler and dispersant, casted onto POP mould to obtain ceramic body. Ceramic then cut into test pieces (8cm x 2cm) and mixed for 2 h and aged for 2 days before dried at 70 °C overnight and sintered at temperature of 800-1200 °C in furnace for 2 h with heating rate 5 °C/min. Slurries also tested for rheological properties using rheometer (brand Thermo Haake). Viscosity and shear stress were measured to investigate the rhoelogical behaviour of slip with different amount of dispersant (0.03 mL to 0.06 mL/200 mL of sample). Characterization of raw samples has been done using X-ray diffractometer (XRD) showing the presence of kaolinite and quartz. Effect of dispersant on rheological behavior, rate of shrinkage, water absorption, porosity and density were investigated It was found that increase in amount of dispersant added exhibit the best rheological behavior, and 0.05 mL dispersant was the optimum amount in term of rate of shrinkage, water absorption, porosity and density. As a conclusion, 0.05 mL was the optimum dispersant which gives best rheological behavior and almost fault-free ceramic bodies

Effects of Soda Lime Silicate Content on Industrial Stoneware Bodies Prepared by Pressing Method

Stoneware clay includes ball clay in every respect except that do not sintering to a white product. Indeed, stoneware containing soda lime silicate could improve physical and mechanical properties. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate influence of soda lime silicate content on industrial stoneware bodies with different weight percent (wt%) at sintering temperature 950 °C and 1100 °C. Rectangular sample were produced by uniaxial pressing at 40 MPa. Chemical composition was determined by using XRF. The thermal behavior was determined by thermogravimetric and different thermal analysis (TGA-DTA). The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used for microstructure analysis. The water absorption of the sample was determined using Archimedes’ method. The mechanical strength of stoneware bodies is important for many type applications and can be determined by measuring flexural strength (MOR). The water absorption decreased with optimum weight percent (wt%) of soda lime silicate into industrial stoneware bodies. The experimental result showed that desirable properties of stoneware bodies can be achieved with 5 wt% of soda lime silicate. As conclusion, optimum 5 wt% of soda lime silicate will influence physical and mechanical properties of industrial stoneware bodies.

Application of Sayong Ball Clay Membrane Filtration for Ni (II) Removal from Industrial Wastewater

Wastewater containing heavy metals, such as nickel ions (Ni2+), discharged from industry to water streams poses a serious threat because even at low concentrations, it does not naturally degrade and is toxic to human and aquatic life. This article reviews a novel technique for wastewater treatment using a Sayong ball clay (SBC) membrane to remove nickel from industrial wastewater. SBC powder was achieved through milling using a planetary ball mill (milling time; 10, 20 and 30h), further labelled as SBC 10, SBC 20 and SBC 30, with a ball-to-powder of ratio 7:1 and rotation speed of 300rpm. The physical characteristics of the apparent porosities, bulk density and shrinkage were investigated. XRD was used to study the phase, while FESEM was used to analyse the microstructure of the fired membrane. The FESEM microstructure indicates a decreased particle size (SB30). Filtration was conducted using a dead-end filtration system. The fabricated SBC 10, 20 and 30 membranes showed significant removal of nickel from industrial wastewater—88.87%, 82.96% and 85.13%, respectively. This study revealed that the SBC membrane is a promising membrane to remove nickel from industrial wastewater. The results also indicate the possibility of highlighting the introduced technique as a new technique for the treatment of industrial wastewater. As a new trend for waste management, pollution prevention could be applied in Malaysia as one of the advanced biotechnologies to solve various environmental problems.