Hydroxyl Groups In B-ring Research Articles

Mechanism of flavonols for binding protein and inhibiting cell activity: Regulation by B-ring hydroxyl groups and Cu(II) coordination

In this study, we aimed to elucidate the mechanism of flavonol-Cu(II) coordination binding to human serum albumin (HSA) and its effect on cellular activity, focusing on the regulation by the number of B-ring hydroxyl groups and Cu(II) coordination. The number of B-ring hydroxyl groups was positively associated with fluorescence quenching ability, secondary structure modification, and protein affinity. The coordination of Cu(II) altered the binding capacity, interaction, binding site, and binding kinetics between flavonols and proteins, as well as the secondary structure, fluorescence lifetime, and microscopic state of proteins. The number of B-ring hydroxyl groups was positively correlated with the ability of flavonols to inhibit HepG2 cell activity, and this correlation was not affected by Cu(II) coordination. However, Cu(II) binding weakened the ability of flavonols to inhibit HepG2 cell activity. This study contributes to a comprehensive understanding of how the number of hydroxyl groups in the B-ring of flavonols and the presence of copper ions affect their transport in the blood, providing new insights into the bioavailability of flavonols.

Inhibition of cyclooxygenase by blocking the reducing cosubstrate at the peroxidase site: Discovery of galangin as a novel cyclooxygenase inhibitor

Earlier we have shown that certain flavonoids (e.g., quercetin) are high-affinity reducing cosubstrates for cyclooxygenase (COX) 1 and 2. These compounds can bind inside the peroxidase active sites of COXs and donate an electron from one of their B-ring hydroxyl groups to hematin. Based on these earlier findings, it is postulated that some of the natural flavonoids such as galangin that are structural analogs of quercetin but lack the proper B-ring hydroxyl groups might function as novel inhibitors of COXs by blocking the effect of the reducing cosubstrates. This idea is tested in the present study. Computational docking analysis together with quantum chemistry calculation shows that galangin can bind inside the peroxidase active sites of COX-1 and COX-2 in a similar manner as quercetin, but it has little ability to effectively donate its electrons, thereby blocking the effect of the reducing cosubstrates like quercetin. Further experimental studies confirm that galangin can inhibit, both in vitro and in vivo, quercetin-mediated activation of the peroxidase activity of the COX-1/2 enzymes. The results of the present study demonstrate that galangin is a novel naturally-occurring inhibitor of COX-1 and COX-2, acting by blocking the function of the reducing cosubstrates at the peroxidase sites.

Structure-Activity Relationship of Oligomeric Flavan-3-ols: Importance of the Upper-Unit B-ring Hydroxyl Groups in the Dimeric Structure for Strong Activities.

Proanthocyanidins, which are composed of oligomeric flavan-3-ol units, are contained in various foodstuffs (e.g., fruits, vegetables, and drinks) and are strongly biologically active compounds. We investigated which element of the proanthocyanidin structure is primarily responsible for this functionality. In this study, we elucidate the importance of the upper-unit of 4–8 condensed dimeric flavan-3-ols for antimicrobial activity against Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) and cervical epithelioid carcinoma cell line HeLa S3 proliferation inhibitory activity. To clarify the important constituent unit of proanthocyanidin, we synthesized four dimeric compounds, (−)-epigallocatechin-[4,8]-(+)-catechin, (−)-epigallocatechin-[4,8]-(−)-epigallocatechin, (−)-epigallocatechin-[4,8]-(−)-epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate, and (+)-catechin-[4,8]-(−)-epigallocatechin and performed structure–activity relationship (SAR) studies. In addition to antimicrobial activity against S. cerevisiae and proliferation inhibitory activity on HeLa S3 cells, the correlation of 2,2-diphenyl-l-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity with the number of phenolic hydroxyl groups was low. On the basis of the results of our SAR studies, we concluded that B-ring hydroxyl groups of the upper-unit of the dimer are crucially important for strong and effective activity.

Screening Flavonoids for Inhibition of Acetylcholinesterase Identified Baicalein as the Most Potent Inhibitor

Screening phenolic and polyphenolic compounds for inhibitory activity against electric eels acetylcholinesterase (AChE) identified baicalein, a major flavone derived from the roots of Scutellaria baicalensis, as the most potent inhibitor with IC50 (concentration required for 50% inhibition) of 0.61 µM. None of the hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids screened showed inhibitory activity measured at 100 µM. Structure-activity relationships based on IC50 values of the active flavonoids showed that inhibitory activity (a) required the unsaturated 2-phenyl-chroman structure, (b) has strong requirement for the A-ring A5-OH, A6-OH and A7-OH groups (b) does not depend on B-ring hydroxyl groups, and (d) was reduced by bulky sugar substitution of the saturated C-ring C3-OH. Enzyme kinetic analysis showed that baicalein is a mixed inhibitor of AChE with K1 (equilibrium constant of dissociation of the inhibitor bound enzyme complex) and K2 (equilibrium constant of dissociation of the inhibitor bound enzyme-substrate complex) of 0.91 and 1.98 µM, respectively.

The B-ring hydroxylation pattern of anthocyanins can be determined through activity of the flavonoid 3′-hydroxylase on leucoanthocyanidins

In contrast to current knowledge, the B -ring hydroxylation pattern of anthocyanins can be determined by the hydroxylation of leucoanthocyanidins in the 3' position by flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase. The cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase (F3'H) and flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase (F3'5'H) are key flavonoid enzymes that introduce B-ring hydroxyl groups in positions 3' or 3' and 5', respectively. The degree of B-ring hydroxylation is the major determinant of the hue of anthocyanin pigments. Numerous studies have shown that F3'H and F3'5'H may act on more than one type of anthocyanin precursor in addition to other flavonoids, but it has been unclear whether the anthocyanin precursor of the leucoanthocyanidin type can be hydroxylated as well. We have investigated this in vivo using feeding experiments and in vitro by studies with recombinant F3'H. Feeding leucoanthocyanidins to petal tissue with active hydroxylases resulted in anthocyanidins with increased B-ring hydroxylation relative to the fed leucoanthocyanidin, indicating the presence of 3'-hydroxylating activity (in Petunia and Eustoma grandiflorum Grise.) and 3',5'-hydroxylating activity (in E. grandiflorum Grise.). Tetcyclacis, a specific inhibitor of cytochrome P450-dependent enzymes, abolished this activity, excluding involvement of unspecific hydroxylases. While some hydroxylation could be a consequence of reverse catalysis by dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) providing an alternative substrate, hydroxylating activity was still present in fed petals of a DFR deficient petunia line. In vitro conversion rates and kinetic data for dLPG (a stable leucoanthocyanidin substrate) were comparable to those for other flavonoids for nine of ten recombinant flavonoid hydroxylases from various taxa. dLPG was a poor substrate for only the recombinant Fragaria F3'Hs. Thus, the B-ring hydroxylation pattern of anthocyanins can be determined at all precursor levels in the pathway.

Comparison of the interaction between three anthocyanins and human serum albumins by spectroscopy

Anthocyanin is an important kind of water-soluble pigment existing widely in plants, and has various health benefits to human body. The number and location of the hydroxyl groups of the parent nucleus of Anthocyanins have significant effects on their activities. This research employed different spectroscopic methods (i.e. fluorescence spectroscopy, UV–vis absorbance, three-dimensional fluorescence spectra and circular dichroism (CD)) to investigate the mutual interactions between three differently substituted B-ring hydroxyl groups (Pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside, P3G; Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, C3G and Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, D3G) and human serum albumin (HSA) under physiological pH conditions. The calculated thermodynamic parameters and the spectrum showed that P3G, C3G and D3G could result in quenching of the intrinsic fluorescence. The comparison result of the strength of comprehensive binding parameter Y (i.e. Y=lg( Ka×E×n/r)), which was used to reflect the extent of interaction of Anthocyanin–HSA system, was YD3G>YC3G>YP3G. Moreover, the secondary structure of HSA was changed in the presence of P3G/C3G/D3G. The α-helix percentage of P3G–HSA increased while that of C3G/D3G–HSA decreased. Overall, these results showed that the number of B-ring –OH in each molecule played an important role in the interaction of these anthocyanins with HSA.

Surface electrochemical oxidation and polymerization mechanism of epicatechin

Electrochemical process of epicatechin, one of the flavonoids antioxidants, was studied here by cyclic voltammetry and semiempirical molecular orbital computation (MOPAC). Electrochemical oxidation of epicatechin showed a multistep mechanism with two anodic peaks being recognized at about +0.14V and +0.52V (vs. Ag/AgCl). The first peak is strong concentration dependent, showing an adsorptive feature between 1×10−8M and 2×10−7M, a diffusion controlled feature between 2×10−7M and 1×10−5M, and a surface polymerization feature between 1×10−5M and 1×10−3M. Computation showed that the first electron was released at 4′-hydroxyl group in B-ring. No charge delocalization occurs between A- and B-rings. Higher pH medium favors oxidation. The oxidation rate is faster in strong acidic or basic medium and slower in a weak acidic medium. This research may help to explain the complexity of antioxidant activity of flavonoids and as a complement method to characterize the role of flavonoids antioxidants in treating oxidative stress diseases.

Characterization of dihydroflavonol 4-reductases for recombinant plant pigment biosynthesis applications

Anthocyanins are colorful plant pigments with promising applications as pharmaceuticals and colorants. In order to engineer efficient pigment biosynthesis in Escherichia coli, the activities of various dihydroflavonol 4-reductases (DFRs) were characterized for the three primary dihydroflavonol substrates. The biochemical assays demonstrated variable DFR activities for dihydroflavonol with one B-ring hydroxyl group, the precursor of pelargonidin derivatives. In contrast, dihydroflavonols with two and three B-ring hydroxylation were metabolized with comparable efficiency. Furthermore, the catalysis of DFR for the secondary substrates, flavanones, also depended on the number of B-ring hydroxyl groups. Engineering the expression of the DFR clones together with plant-specific 4-coumaroyl:CoA ligase, chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase, and flavanone 3-hydroxylase in E. coli resulted in the synthesis of pelargonidin at various levels, from p-coumaric acids. The identification of a robust DFR from this study can also be used for engineering recombinant synthesis of other bioactive flavonoids, such as flavan-3-ols.

Inhibition of lipoxygenase by (-)-epigallocatechin gallate: X-ray analysis at 2.1 Å reveals degradation of EGCG and shows soybean LOX-3 complex with EGC instead

Lipoxygenases (LOXs) are non-heme iron containing enzymes ubiquitous in nature and participating in the metabolism of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). They are capable of combining their dioxygenase activity with its co-oxidative activity manifesting itself in biotransformation reactions catalyzed by LOXs for other than PUFA small molecules. LOXs involvement in inflammatory diseases and cancer have been well documented. Catechins are the natural flavonoids of known inhibitory activity toward dioxygenases with a potential to be utilized in disease prevention and treatment. This work presents results obtained from an X-ray analysis of (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) interacting with soybean lipoxygenase-3. The 3D structure of the resulting complex reveals the inhibitor depicting (-)-epigallo-catechin that lacks galloyl moiety. The A-ring is near the iron co-factor, attached by the hydrogen bond to the C-terminus of the enzyme, and the B-ring hydroxyl groups participate in the hydrogen bonds and the van der Waals interactions formed by the surrounding amino acids and water molecules.

Synthesis of Biodegradable Polyurethane Foams from Condensed Tannin and Bark of Acacia mearnsii

Utilization of wattle tannin (WT) and Acacia meamsii bark (BK) was studied as a partial replacement for synthetic polyols in formulation of polyurethane (PU) preparation. Based on the urethane formation from (+ )-catechin, it is suggested that polyhydric condensed tannin can be utilized as a polyol and constitutes hard segments in a PU polymer molecule. Rigid PU foams were prepared from WT and BK and their biodegradability was investigated. Various types of PU foams can be obtained by selecting the appropriate diisocyanates. Hydroxyl groups in B-ring of WT react with isocyanate, and hence WT and BK act as cross-linking agents as well as hard segments in PU foams so as to produce rigid foams at high levels of WT or BK contents. The PU foams derived from WT and BK obviously were degraded by some wood-rotting fungi. The BK moiety was degraded preferentially by fungi and soil microorganisms. The urethanes derived from catechin and WT were relatively stable under hydrolytic and aminolytic conditions at room temperature. The rates of decompo­ sition of urethanes derived from catechin and WT in both hydrolysis and aminolysis conditions at high temperatures were much faster than those of urethanes derived from phenethyl alcohol and trirnethylolpropane.

Flavonoid Deactivation of Ferrylmyoglobin in Relation to Ease of Oxidation as Determined by Cyclic Voltammetry

Fourteen flavonoid aglycones, and the flavonoid glyco-side rutin, with redox potentials ranging from 0.20 (myricetin) to 0.83 V (chrysin) vs. NHE, as determined by cyclic voltammetry at 23°C in aqueous 50 mM phosphate, ionic strength 0.16 (NaCI) with pH = 7.4 and compared with redox potentials determined for four cinnamic acid derivatives, were all found to reduce ferrylmyoglobin, MbFe(IV)=O, to metmyoglo-bin, MbFe(III). Reaction stoichiometry depends strongly on the number of hydroxyl groups in the flavonoid B-ring. All compounds with 3′,4′-dihydroxy substitution reduce 2 equivalents of MbFe(IV)=O, whereas naringenin, hesperitin and kaempferol, with one hydroxyl group in the B-ring, reduce with a one-to-one stoichiometry. As studied spectrophotometrically under pseudo-first-order conditions with flavonoids in excess, rutin and apigenin react with MbFe(IV)=O with very similar and moderately high activation enthalpies of ΔH‡298 = 69 ± 1kJ mol−1 and ΔH‡298 = 65 ± 3kJ mol-1, respectively, and with positive activation entropies of ΔH‡298 = 23 ± 4Jmol-1 K−1 and ΔS‡298 = 13 ± 9Jmol−1K-1, respectively, in agreement with outer-sphere electron transfer as rate determining. For the fifteen plant polyphenols only qualitative relations exist between redox potential and rate constants rather than a linear free energy relationship (r2 = 0.503), and especially the flavone apigenin was found more efficient as reducing agent. For the flava-nones, a linear relation (r2 = 0.971) indicate that, in the absence of a 2,3 double bond, removal of the 4–carbonyl group or addition of a 3–hydroxy group only has minor effect on reactivity. The flavonols are the most efficient reducing agents, effectively reducing MbFe(IV)=O to MbFe(III) and establishing a steady state distribution between the flavonol and MbFe(III) and oxymyoglobin, MbFe(II)O2. Oxidised flavonols reduces MbFe(III) to MbFe(II)02 very efficiently and much faster than the parent flavonol.