Axis Axis Research Articles

Serologic Survey of Brucella spp. in Culled Invasive Alien Mammals from El Palmar National Park, Argentina, and in Exposed Consumers.

Brucellosis is a worldwide zoonotic disease caused by Brucella spp. and transmitted from domestic and wild animals to humans. Brucellosis causes important economic losses in livestock, has a significant impact on public health, and may affect the health of wildlife. Hunting and consumption of meat from culled wildlife constitute a risk for Brucella spp. infection in humans and hunting dogs. In El Palmar National Park (EPNP), Argentina, the invasive alien mammals wild boar (Sus scrofa) and axis deer (Axis axis) are controlled, slaughtered in situ, and consumed by hunters, with meat trimmings and offal often fed to dogs. In this study, we evaluated but did not detect anti-Brucella antibodies in wild boar (n=95) and axis deer (n=238) from EPNP or in game consumers, dogs (n=39) and humans (n=61). These results suggest a lack of exposure to Brucella spp. at this site during the study period. Despite negative findings in the sampled location, One Health surveillance across multiple species contributes to our understanding of pathogen dynamics and enables targeted interventions to minimize health risks.

Tracking sero-molecular trends of swine brucellosis in Hawai'i and the central Pacific.

Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease of mammals caused by bacterial species of the Brucella genus. The reservoir for disease is typically mammals, with species of Brucella found infecting amphibians, bats, and marine mammals. Brucella spp. can pass directly to humans through contact with infected animals or their products. Brucella spp. can cause chronic debilitating infections in mammals, including humans, and is associated with spontaneous abortions in infected animals, causing reduced fecundity. In Hawai'i, terrestrial species that could harbor Brucella spp. include swine, cattle, horses, and axis deer among others. The numerous feral swine in Hawai'i are known to carry Brucella suis, with evidence supporting infections in cattle. Brucella suis also poses infection risk to humans, dogs, and potentially horses across the state. In this study, 3,274 feral swine serum samples collected from 5 of the 8 main islands over a 15-year span were analyzed for exposure to B. suis. Of the 558 watersheds in the state, 77 were sampled as part of this effort. Spatial analysis was used to identify watersheds of concern. MLVA and whole genome SNP analysis was used for molecular epidemiological analysis. Statewide seropositivity rates were triple that of feral swine found in the conterminous United States. Smoothed positivity rates were highest on Maui, followed by O'ahu, and the island of Hawai'i. Island-by-island analysis found high brucellosis positivity levels associated with specific watersheds and agricultural areas. Local spatial autocorrelation identified hot spots on O'ahu and Hawai'i. MLVA analysis of available B. suis from Hawai'i found molecular epidemiological connections with B. suis found in French Polynesia and the mainland US while differing from those in Tonga, Western Polynesia. Strains from Hawai'i are phylogenetically closest to strains from the United States. MLVA and SNP analysis found B. suis strains from Hawai'i fell into the genetic group that contains biovar 1 B. suis. This work identified islands and watersheds of high brucellosis seropositivity in feral swine of Hawai'i, highlighting the magnitude of the zoonotic risk. Introduction of strains in recent history is unlikely due to modern animal trade and disease control practices. Genomic analysis of strains in Hawai'i and the Pacific area can provide hidden historical and local clues to brucellosis epidemiology in the state.

Do exotic invasive mammals disturb the native fauna? Spatiotemporal distribution and overlap between species in a national park of Argentina.

Monitoring the invasive exotic species and their effect on native fauna is fundamental for their effective control. The objective of this research is to evaluate the spatiotemporal distribution and overlap of medium-large-sized fauna in El Palmar National Park, Argentina, to consider potential negative interactions between native and exotic species. Camera traps were distributed in 27 sites between 2017 and 2019. Spatial and temporal overlap was estimated for every pair of exotic-native taxa. With 2673 camera days, two exotic and seven native taxa were recorded. All species were distributed along the extension of the National Park but in different numbers of sites. Exotic axis deer (Axis axis) was recorded in all sites but one, and exotic wild boar (Sus scrofa) occurred at only one-third of the sites surveyed. The occurrence of native mammals ranged between 26% (Geoffroy's cat, Leopardus geoffroyi) and 67% (capybara, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). Spatial overlap between native and exotic species was high overall and was higher in winter when species moved over larger areas to look for limited resources. Except for greater rhea (Rhea americana), which was diurnal, all species had crepuscular or nocturnal patterns. Both exotic species had an intermediate/high overlap in their activity pattern with almost all native species, including some species with similar diets, but the hours of their maximum activities did not strictly coincide. However, the existence of differences in the exotic species' activity patterns compared to their patterns in other areas where they inhabit could indicate segregation in daily activity to relax competition.

Taylor’s law and quasi-experimental hunting of invasive wild boar and axis deer in a protected area of north-eastern Argentina

Context Overabundant ungulate populations frequently cause ecological and economic damage and are difficult to control. Sustained culling efforts at El Palmar National Park have largely reduced wild boar (Sus scrofa) numbers and damage but have failed to halt the ever-increasing abundance of axis deer (Axis axis) for undefined reasons. Multi-year camera-trap surveys indicated a mismatch between deer core activity and the usual timing of hunting sessions. Aim We used the spatial and temporal forms of Taylor’s law (TL, a power relationship between the sample mean and sample variance) to test whether overnight hunting sessions are more effective for culling axis deer and wild boar than are daytime sessions, and assessed whether they modify ungulate harvest composition. Methods We implemented a quasi-experimental trial (i.e. ‘experiments in which units are not assigned to conditions randomly’), including nine alternating blocks of four to seven hunting sessions each (overnight or daytime) in which an average of 42 hunter groups performed controlled shooting over bait from fixed elevated blinds, retrieved, sexed, weighed and measured all quarry. Key results The relationship between the mean and variance of ungulate crude catch per hunting-party session and crude catch per unit effort (CPUE, where effort is measured in hunting-party hours) by hunting shift satisfied the spatial and temporal TL. On average, axis deer catch was 2.39–2.61 times greater in overnight than in daytime sessions, whereas CPUE indices were 1.54–1.73 times greater. For wild boar, overnight sessions returned catches similar to (0.94–1.03×), and a significantly lower CPUE (0.63–0.67×) than for daytime sessions. The harvest indices were substantially aggregated in daytime sessions only, and were consistently skewed towards yearlings or subadults and males, especially among adult deer. Overnight sessions culled proportionally more adults and more pregnant hinds and sows than did daytime sessions, and significantly heavier deer and wild boar males. Conclusions Overnight sessions were substantially more effective for culling deer than were daytime sessions, and selected for individuals with greater fitness. Stage- and male-skewed harvest most likely explains the steady population growth of axis deer despite increasing hunting pressure over a decade. Implications Adjusting the schedule of hunting sessions to time intervals of peak ungulate activity substantially increased the efficiency of management efforts in terms of removal rates and reproductive value of the culled specimens.

Comparative Gross Architectural Studies on the Skull of Male Chital Deer (Axis axis) and Sambar Deer (Rusa unicolor) as an Aid in Wildlife Forensics

Background: Madhya Pradesh is rich in biodiversity having diversified flora and fauna. But now a days, apart from various threat like loss of habitat poisoning, accident, disease facing wildlife today and poaching remain one of the important causes for fauna declination. poaching remains one of important cause for fauna declination. Poaching of wild animals particularly chital and sambar deer is more for the meat, ornamental and trophy purposes. In forensic laboratory where there is lack of molecular facilities, comparative gross morphological study plays an important role in solving wildlife crime cases. skull is a best material to compare the closely relative species. hence, the study was conducted on comparative gross morphology of 4 male chital and sambar deer skull. Methods: The study was conducted 4 male adult skulls each of chital and sambar deer. The skulls were de-skinned and kept under maceration for a period of one month. The gross morphological differentiating features of dorsal surface, lateral surface, basal surface and nuchal surface were observed and recorded with the help of digital camera. Result: In this study, unique differentiating features were sufficient to distinguish among the skull of male chital and sambar. The facial tuberosity was present caudal to infraorbital foramen, dorsal to the superior third premolar tooth in chital deer, whereas; it was present dorsally the superior first molar tooth in sambar deer. Rostral extremities of nasal bones in skull of male chital deer were notched; however, these were blunt and without notch in the skull of male sambar deer. Incisive (Premaxilla) bone was directed upward in chital deer; whereas, it was directed caudally in case of sambar deer. The present comparative study will provide reliable information for identification of these closely related species specially needed for wildlife forensic cases.

Resource partitioning in a novel herbivore assemblage in South America.

Human-induced species declines and extinctions have led to the downsizing of large-herbivore assemblages, with implications for many ecosystem processes. Active reintroduction of extirpated large herbivores or their functional equivalents may help to reverse this trend and restore diverse ecosystems and their processes. However, it is unclear whether resource competition between native and non-native herbivores could threaten restoration initiatives, or to what extent (re)introduced species may influence local vegetation dynamics. To answer these questions, we investigated the diets of a novel South American herbivore assemblage that includes resident native species, reintroduced native species and introduced non-native species. We examined plant composition, diet breadth and the overlap between species to describe the local herbivory profile and the potential for resource competition. Using DNA metabarcoding on faecal samples (n = 465), we analysed the diets of the herbivore assemblage in the Rincón del Socorro rewilding area of Iberá National Park, Argentina. We compared the species richness of faecal samples, the occurrence of plant families/growth forms and the compositional similarity of samples (inter- and intraspecifically). Our results indicate species-level taxonomic partitioning of plant resources by herbivores in this system. Differences in sample richness, composition and diet breadth reflected a diverse range of herbivory strategies, from grazers (capybara) to mixed feeders/browsers (brocket deer, lowland tapir). Differences in diet compositional similarity (Jaccard) revealed strong taxonomic resource partitioning. The two herbivores with the most similar diets (Pampas deer and brocket deer) still differed by more than 80%. Furthermore, all but one species (axis deer) had more similar diet composition intraspecifically than compared to the others. Overall, we found little evidence for resource competition between herbivore species. Instead, recently reintroduced native species and historically introduced non-natives are likely expanding the range of herbivory dynamics in the ecosystem. Further research will be needed to determine the full ecological impacts of these (re)introduced herbivores. In conclusion, we show clear differences in diet breadth and composition among native, reintroduced and non-native herbivore species that may be key to promoting resource partitioning, species coexistence and the restoration of ecological function.

Hog deer Axis porcinus reclaiming historical geographical distribution range due to ecological restoration in the Yamuna Biodiversity Park, Delhi, India

Hog deer Axis porcinus reclaiming historical geographical distribution range due to ecological restoration in the Yamuna Biodiversity Park, Delhi, India

Diversity and Distribution of Large Herbivore Mammals in Kawal Tiger Reserve, Telangana State

The usage of habitat, rate of growth, dispersion, and the reaction of a population to management activities are all factors in estimating the richness of wild animals. However, because there are so many real-world field issues, determining the densities of herbivore animals in the forest is challenging. The current study is conducted in Kawal Tiger Reserve, northeast of Telangana, to estimate the number of big herbivore mammals and learn more about how these animals use various habitats. The direct sighting and line transect methods were applied to collect systematic data. 7 species of large herbivore viz. Bluebull, Four-horned Antelope, Indian Gaur, Spotted Deer, Sambar Deer, Indian Gazelle, Wild boar were observed during the surveys. Based on the information, the habitat preferences of different large herbivore species in the study area is assessed. Results shows the richness of the species is abundant in the study area due to availability of sufficient food resources, sufficient water resources. No adverse increase or decrease in the quantity of sightings annually. Even if there have been a few local hunting occurrences, they are not noteworthy nor do they appear to have any impact on the extinction of species. It may also lamentably state that our carnivore density is really low.

A screening assay based on PCR amplification of Cytochrome b for species identification of some animals in Cervus

Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) is a protective animal in Thailand. Sambar deer meat has become popular among consumer. Therefore, the smuggling of sambar deer has increased. For the success of prosecution, species identification of meat origin is necessary. An easy-to-perform screening assay for species identification of sambar deer meat is described in this study. The detection of three species of cervids including sambar deer, sika deer (Cervus nippon) and rusa deer (Cervus timorensi) was achieved by using newly designed primers targeting sambar deer cytochrome b (Cyt b) region producing an amplicon of approximately 350 base pairs (bp). The possibility of cross-amplification was prevented by testing with other species of cervids including eld’s deer (Cervus eldi), muntjac (Muntiacus spp.), chital deer (Cervus axis), hog deer (Axis porcinus) and popular consumed meats (pork, beef, chicken, seabass). The limit of detection (LOD) on sambar deer DNA was 31.25 pg. Sensitivity of detection of possible sambar deer in mixed meat species was 2%. Suitability of the screening assay was confirmed on processed meats like frozen meats (-20 oC, -80 oC) and cooked meats including boiled, steamed, autoclaved, fried, microwave cooked and grilled. Hence, this screening assay can effectively be used for preliminary examination of sambar deer origin in questioned evidence.

Influence of COVID-19 lockdown and hunting disturbance on the activity patterns of exotic wild boar (Sus scrofa) and axis deer (Axis axis) in a protected area of northeastern Argentina

Influence of COVID-19 lockdown and hunting disturbance on the activity patterns of exotic wild boar (Sus scrofa) and axis deer (Axis axis) in a protected area of northeastern Argentina

Invasive wild deer exhibit environmental niche shifts in Australia: Where to from here?

Invasive species have established populations around the world and, in the process, characteristics of their realized environmental niches have changed. Because of their popularity as a source of game, deer have been introduced to, and become invasive in, many different environments around the world. As such, deer should provide a good model system in which to test environmental niche shifts. Using the current distributions of the six deer species present in Australia, we quantified shifts in their environmental niches that occurred since introduction; we determined the differences in suitable habitat between their international (native and invaded) and their Australian ranges. Given knowledge of their Australian habitat use, we then modeled the present distribution of deer in Australia to assess habitat suitability, in an attempt to predict future deer distributions. We show that the Australian niches of hog (Axis porcinus), fallow (Dama dama), red (Cervus elaphus), rusa (C. timorensis), and sambar deer (C. unicolor), but not chital deer (A. axis), were different to their international ranges. When we quantified the potential range of these six species in Australia, chital, hog, and rusa deer had the largest areas of suitable habitat outside their presently occupied habitat. The other three species had already expanded outside the ranges that we predicted as suitable. Here, we demonstrate that deer have undergone significant environmental niche shifts following introduction into Australia, and these shifts are important for predicting the future spread of these invasive species. It is important to note that current Australian and international environmental niches did not necessarily predict range expansions, thus wildlife managers should treat these analyses as conservative estimates.

Low genetic diversity among introduced axis deer: comments on the genetic paradox and invasive species

Abstract Human-mediated introductions and subsequent establishment and spread of nonnative species have the potential to create a founder effect in such populations, which typically results in low genetic diversity and potential for inbreeding. However, several exotic invasive species exhibit a “genetic paradox” in which they thrive and adapt to novel environments while also avoiding complications from low genetic diversity. Axis deer (Axis axis) were introduced into Texas, Hawaii, South America, Australia, and Croatia during the 19th and 20th centuries and successfully established large populations from a few founding individuals. Mitochondrial (Cytochrome-b, Cytb; displacement loop, D-loop) and nuclear (10 microsatellites) markers were used to assess genetic diversity within and between axis deer populations in Texas and Hawaii and then compared to other introduced (Australia and Croatia) and native (India) populations. Overall, mtDNA divergence was 0.54% (Cytb) and 1.55% (D-loop) indicating high mitochondrial similarity within the species. Further, each invasive population was composed of only one or two mtDNA haplotypes. Microsatellite allele diversity also was low within and between populations in Texas and Hawaii resulting in monomorphic loci and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium violations in both populations. The low genetic diversity in native Indian axis deer and within and between invasive populations suggests that the introduced populations experienced founder effects following introduction, and yet overcame this potential handicap by undergoing successful establishment and expansion. Axis deer appear to be another successful invasive species characterized by the genetic paradox where they exhibit genetic profiles that suggest inbreeding effects should be imminent, yet display no signs of inbreeding and are highly successful adapting to novel environments.

Density of Axis Deer in Texas: Management Implications for Native White-tailed Deer and Associated Habitats

Abstract Axis deer Axis axis have been widely introduced to new geographic ranges, and in the United States, free-ranging axis deer have become well established in the Edwards Plateau ecoregion as well as other portions of Texas. However, no estimates of axis deer population density nor size have been conducted since 1994. It is hypothesized that axis deer on the Edwards Plateau are potentially competing with native white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus for food, space, and habitat resources, and causing damage to important riparian habitats. Our goal was to estimate regional densities of axis deer and white-tailed deer, and provide insight about the potential impacts axis deer may have on native wildlife and their habitats. Estimated using distance sampling techniques in 2018 and 2019, average axis deer density was 19.7 (95% CI: 14.1–25.6) axis deer/km2 compared with 23.0 (95% CI: 18.2–27.5) white-tailed deer/km2, and axis deer densities ranged from 16.9 to 171.0/km2 among eight different land cover types in Kimble County, Texas, with a county-wide estimate of 61,078 (95% CI: 30,407–100,369) axis deer. Axis deer densities were greatest in riparian land cover types, and they selected for two riparian land cover types and upland grasslands. Axis deer population estimates clearly indicate their population size has increased substantially since introduction to Texas in the 1930s. Population management of axis deer is warranted to limit impacts to native wildlife from potential habitat usurpation, or damage to riparian vegetation communities, soil, and water quality.

Population dynamics of chital deer (Axis axis) in northern Queensland: effects of drought and culling

Context Chital deer (Axis axis) are long established in the northern Queensland dry tropics, and at high densities are considered pests by cattle graziers. Cost-effective management is difficult for widespread, fluctuating populations of vertebrate pests such as these deer. Historically, control of chital deer has been limited to recreational and some commercial ground-shooting and trapping. Concerns over chital deer impacts were heightened during drought in 2015 and funding became available for aerial culling. Aim This study set out to determine (1) distribution and abundance, (2) seasonal reproductive output, (3) potential and actual rates of increase and their determinants, and (4) efficient management strategies for chital deer in the northern Queensland dry tropics. Methods In 2014, ~13 000 km2 of the main distribution was surveyed by helicopter. Multiple vehicle ground surveys per year monitored chital deer density on two properties during 2013–2022. Seasonal shot samples of deer on both properties assessed reproductive output during 2014–2016. Aerial surveys during 2016–2020 determined chital deer densities on seven properties, prior to aerial culling on four properties. Finally, the maximum rate of increase of chital deer was calculated from life-history data. Key results Regionally, chital deer are patchily distributed and so are best monitored locally where densities can be >50 deer km−2. Vehicle ground surveys recorded an ~80% decline in chital deer populations on two properties over 7–10 months during drought in early 2015, with a similar rate being recorded by aerial survey at a third site. There was little recruitment during the drought, but the decline was seemingly driven by adult mortality. Aerial shooting further reduced populations by 39–88% to <3 deer km−2 on four properties. Where there was no continuing control, culled populations recovered to pre-cull densities or higher after 2.4 years. One unculled property recovered to its pre-drought density after 6 years. Rates of recovery were at or higher than the maximum annual rate of increase for chital deer estimated here as 26–41%. Conclusions Drought has a lasting effect on this chital deer population, because of the resulting large population decline and the modest rate of any recovery in the absence of culling. Culling can reduce populations to low density, but the removal rate needs to be sustained to suppress future growth. Implications Drought provides a strategic opportunity to further reduce chital deer populations for enduring control. Large reductions are feasible given the clumped dispersion of populations within properties and in the region.

Further refinement of helicopter capture for Australian chital deer (Axis axis)

This study improves a technique to capture wild chital deer (Axis axis) in northern Australia by darting from a helicopter. We quantified several metrics, including the frequency of adverse animal welfare events. Mortality at the time of capture was 15%, but no animals died post-release, and the frequencies of hyperthermia and hypoxaemia were lower than in previous operations. This study can be used as a template for iterative refinement of high-risk capture methodologies.

First photographic record of Spotted Deer Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777) (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) in Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Maharashtra, India

Axis axis also known as Chital, Spotted Deer or Axis Deer, is native to Asia. The Chital ranges over 8–30 0N in India and through Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Chital is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species because it possesses a very wide range, however, the population is declining outside protected areas. Although widely distributed, there is no record of Chital from the Great Indian Bustard (GIB) Sanctuary, Maharashtra. Here we report the first photographic record of Chital from the sanctuary, in the Gangewadi region of Solapur District. During a field work exercise for radio collaring of Indian Grey Wolves to monitor movement in the human-dominated landscape of Maharashtra, camera traps were placed in the Gangewadi area of the GIB sanctuary. Over the survey period, the species that were photo-captured included the Indian Grey Wolves, Indian Fox, Jungle Cat, Black Buck, Wild Boar, porcupine, and Black-naped Hare on multiple occasions. The male Spotted Deer was captured at one event in a single camera trap (17.83240N, 76.00430E) on 30 December 2020 at 0517 h. This is the first record of Spotted Deer in the grassland ecosystem of Solapur region in Maharashtra.

Flower-fruit dynamics, visitor-predator patterns and chemical preferences in the tropical bamboo, Melocanna baccifera.

Mast seeding and associated events in Melocanna baccifera, the largest fruit producing bamboo, is an enigma. So far there are no comprehensive accounts on its flowering phenology, fruiting dynamics and animal interactions. In this study, spanning over 13 years (2009 to 2022), we observed eight M. baccifera clumps in JNTBGRI Bambusetum from flowering initiation, fruiting to eventual death. Flowering phenology, floral characteristics, floret types, breeding system, bee visitation, pollination, fruit production and predators were recorded; predation patterns were correlated with fruit chemistry. Flowering duration of clumps ranged from 20 (March 2009-October 2010) to 120 (September 2012-August 2022) months. Bisexual florets are dichogamous and protogynous; and female duration (22-72 h) is many times higher than male duration (2-6 h). The highest ever fruit production for an individual bamboo clump (456.67 Kg) was recorded. Of the total fallen fruits (38371), 38.11% were predated, 43.80% good fruits (no predator hits) and 18.09% immature fruits. A positive correlation between reward (fruits) versus predation was observed, especially in short intervals of high fruit production. Pollen predators (Apis cerana indica, Halictus taprabonae, Braunsapis cupulifera, Trigona iridipennis), fruit predators, ranging from arthropods to mammals, viz., millipede (Spinotarsus colosseus), slug (Mariaella dussumieri), snails (Cryptozona bistrialis, Macrochlamys sp.), borers (Achroia grisella, Blattella germanica), mammals (monkeys Macaca radiata, rats Rattus rattus, porcupine Hystrix indica, wild boar Sus scrofa, palm civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), seedling predators (rabbit Lepus nigricollis, deer Axis axis), and insect/pest predators (ants Crematogaster biroi, Oecophylla smaragdina, mantis Euchomenella indica) were identified. Fruit predation is linked to its age and chemistry. Apart from new insights on flowering phenology, breeding system, pollination and fruiting dynamics, this study demonstrates the vibrant interaction between M. baccifera flowers/fruits and visitors/predators, and provides significant leads towards elucidating the cause of rat multiplication and other events associated with its gregarious flowering.

Spread risk assessment of invasive axis deer using bioclimatic niche models

Ecological niche models are useful tools for predicting and managing biological invasions. However, their reliable implementation and derived applications could be biased by niche shifts among native and invaded areas and by non-equilibrium dynamics. We calculated bioclimatic niche overlap between native and invaded ranges, and tuned species distribution models trained on both the native range (native model), and the native and invasive ranges (complete model) for the axis deer (Axis axis) to assess its invasion risk potential worldwide. Our results suggest that the axis deer shifted its realized niche in some invaded areas where most of the climatic niche available was contained within the environmental conditions from the native range. We found signals of non-equilibrium dynamics between native and invaded niches due to several unfilled areas in invaded regions. The native and complete models are similar in their projection for the equatorial region but differ significantly in the tropical regions. The first fails to predict areas where the species was successfully established. This difference reinforces the idea of using all the occurrences for predicting possible invaded areas, and that invasive species can somehow shift their niche. The complete model predicted that the most climatically suitable regions for the species worldwide were in tropical and subtropical climates, particularly the Neotropics and Afrotropics. While the species has been already established in the Neotropics, it hasn’t in the latter. Therefore, our work emphasized the importance of a nuanced understanding of the potential distribution of invasive species to inform more effective management measures.

Dancing to a different tune: changing reproductive seasonality in an introduced chital deer population

Male and female reproductive behaviour is typically synchronised. In species such as those in the family Cervidae, reproductive timing is often cued by photoperiod, although in females, it can be dependent on body condition. When a species is introduced to a novel environment, the environment changes, or responses of the sexes to such cues differ, asynchronous reproductive behaviour between males and females may occur. We investigated the seasonality of reproductive behaviour in introduced chital deer in northern Queensland by examining male antler phase in relation to female conception rates. We then analysed the influence of different variables likely to affect the timing of male and female reproductive physiology. The lowest percentage of chital in hard antler in any 1 month in this study was 35% (Fig. 1), but the average value was closer to 50%, thus there was a seasonal peak in antler phase linked with photoperiod. Females conceived at any time of year, but were strongly influenced by the amount of rainfall 3 months prior to conception. This resulted in varying conception peaks year-to-year that often did not correspond to the male’s peak in hard antler. In this system, a proportion of males and females were physiologically and behaviourally ready to mate at any time of the year. We predict that differences in the timing of the peaks between the males and females will lead to increased reproductive skew (variation in reproductive success among individual males). This pattern may select for different mating strategies or physiological mechanisms to increase reproductive success.Fig. 1The average percentage of male chital deer in hard antler by month from 2014 to 2019 in north Queensland. Values above the bars indicate the total number of males that were sampled in each month and the error bars indicate the standard error. In the month with the lowest % males in hard antler in the entire study (November, 2017), 35% of males were in hard antler

Habitat connectivity for conserving cervids in a multifunctional landscape

Habitat fragmentation is a considerable threat to biodiversity worldwide. To minimize the effects of fragmentation, it is important to identify and conserve the existing habitat connections that facilitate dispersal and gene flow among populations. Connected populations are more resilient to the changing environment that affects local populations due to greater demographic stability and higher genetic diversity. Our study is the first attempt to identify the crucial habitats facilitating the dispersal of two key sympatric cervids - spotted deer Axis axis and sambar Rusa unicolor in central India. We use species distribution models followed by landscape pattern analyses and connectivity analyses to delineate the essential habitats. Thereafter, we estimated the relative contribution of habitats outside protected areas in maintaining the ecological network, using graph-based metrics. We then locate and predict the areas that have a high risk of human-influenced cervid mortality using a Bayesian regression model that accounts for spatial structure in the data. The results show that about 55% of the core habitats, integrated across both species, lie outside the protected areas and are important in maintaining the ecological network for these cervids. Some peripheral habitats have an increased risk of anthropogenic cervid mortality, which poses high demographic risk. There is an urgent need to regulate the nature and intensity of human activities in areas of human-wildlife coexistence to maintain habitat connectivity and ensure the survival of wildlife populations. Our results on cervids complement analyses on connectivity for large carnivores and thus enables one to account for important trophic interactions among wildlife species in land use planning.