Average Occupancy Level Research Articles

One Hundred Years On: Have Prisons Switched from Deterrence to Reform?

AbstractToday over 1.5 million people are imprisoned in Commonwealth countries and the average occupancy level is 129%. The rise in prison populations is often attributed to the existence of punitive systems that have failed to fulfil the rehabilitative purpose of imprisonment. This article sets forth pertinent data on prisons in the Commonwealth nations, which have evolved from common colonial histories and traditions, to highlight perennial problems within the system. To further illustrate these concerns, it delves into a reflection from the findings of the Report of the Indian Jails Committee, 1919–20, and the Indian prison system of today. In doing this, the article encapsulates the journey of reforms implemented in the last 100 years in India.

Use of a Novel Patient-Flow Model to Optimize Hospital Bed Capacity for Medical Patients

There is no known method for determining the minimum number of beds in hospital inpatient units (IPs) to achieve patient waiting-time targets. This study aims to determine the relationship between patient waiting time-related performance measures and bed utilization, so as to optimize IP capacity decisions. The researchers simulated a novel queueing model specifically developed for the IPs. The model takes into account salient features of patient-flow dynamics and was validated against hospital census data. The team used the model to evaluate inpatient capacity decisions against multiple waiting time outcomes: (1) daily average, peak-hour average, and daily maximum waiting times; and (2) proportion of patients waiting strictly more than 0, 1, and 2 hours. The results were published in a simple Microsoft Excel toolbox to allow administrators to conduct sensitivity analysis. To achieve the hospital's goal of rooming patients within 30 to 60 minutes of IP bed requests, the model predicted that the optimal daily average occupancy levels should be 89%-92% (182-188 beds) in the Medicine cohort, 74%-79% (41-43 beds) in the Cardiology cohort, and 72%-78% (23-25 beds) in the Observation cohort. Larger IP cohorts can achieve the same queueing-related performance measure as smaller ones, while tolerating a higher occupancy level. Moreover, patient waiting time increases rapidly as the occupancy level approaches 100%. No universal optimal IP occupancy level exists. Capacity decisions should therefore be made on a cohort-by-cohort basis, incorporating the comprehensive patient-flow characteristics of each cohort. To this end, patient-flow queueing models tailored to the IPs are needed.

An occupancy prediction model for campus buildings based on the diversity of occupancy patterns

The complexity and randomness of occupancy often lead to the deviation between simulated energy and measured energy. It is of great significance to select appropriate approaches for occupancy prediction. This study applied Gaussian distribution model to fit occupancy of three functional buildings within a campus. Abandoned the average occupancy level widely adopted in exiting researches, a novel classified approach considering the diversity of occupancy patterns was proposed. The resulting Gaussian curves presented a better fitting performance for stable changes of occupancy. Although the sudden increase and decrease of occupancy greatly affects the prediction accuracy, the occupancy prediction error based on Gaussian distribution can still be controlled within ±15 %. The energy of the case building was obtained by superposing simulated energy of each occupancy pattern. Rather than traditional method of averaging, the classified methodology eliminated the simulation errors produced from the inhomogeneous and stochastic occupancy. The exploration of changing regularity of energy affected by occupancy and time periods with energy saving potential were achieved by integrating energy data with occupancy data. And the detection of the degree and occurrence times of peak occupancy of various occupancy patterns of rooms provided a support for rational load distribution.

A holistic analysis of passenger travel energy and greenhouse gas intensities

Transportation is a major energy consumer and emitter of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Exploring the opportunities for energy savings and GHG emissions reductions requires understanding transportation energy or GHG intensity, which is defined as energy use or GHG emissions per unit activity, here passenger-kilometres travelled. This aggregate indicator quantifies the amount of energy required or GHGs emitted to provide a generic transportation service. We show that the range of observed energy and GHG intensities of major transportation modes is remarkably similar and that occupancy explains about 70–90% of the variation around the mean; only the remaining 10–30% is explained by differences in trip distances and other factors such as technology and operating conditions. Whereas average occupancy levels differ vastly, they translate into roughly similar levels of energy and GHG intensity for nearly all major transportation modes.

Space-dimension models of spectrum usage for cognitive radio networks

The dynamic spectrum access (DSA) principle, relying on the cognitive radio (CR) paradigm, allows users to access spectrum over time intervals or spatial areas where it remains unused. Due to the opportunistic nature of DSA/CR, the behavior and performance of DSA/CR networks depends on the perceived spectrum usage pattern. An accurate modeling of spectrum occupancy therefore becomes essential in the context of DSA/CR. In this context, this paper addresses the problem of accurately modeling the spectrum occupancy pattern perceived by DSA/CR users in the spatial domain. A novel spatial modeling approach is introduced to enable a simple yet practical and accurate characterization of spectrum. First, a set of models is proposed to characterize and predict the average level of occupancy perceived by DSA/CR users at various locations based on the knowledge of some simple signal parameters. An extension is then proposed to characterize not only the average occupancy level but the instantaneous channel state perceived simultaneously by DSA/CR users observing the same transmitter from different locations as well. The validity and accuracy of the theoretical models are demonstrated with results from an extensive spectrum measurement campaign. Some illustrative examples of their potential applicability are presented and discussed as well.

Operational efficacy of the midnight census

As encumbered hospital services take on the pressures of rising demand and reduced funding, improving capacity management and patient flow through the service become increasingly critical tasks. Effective capacity planning relies on accurately estimating the demand for services and the dynamics of patient flow. This paper presents our efforts to analyse the efficacy of the midnight census, the globally used hospital occupancy measure, in informing capacity planning initiatives. We analyse data from 23 public hospitals in Queensland, Australia, and examine the relationship between midnight census and peak, average and minimum occupancy levels. Lagged relationships with the day before and week before are also investigated. Our findings show that midnight census from the day before is a good predictor of expected peak and average occupancy levels. However, for timely capacity management using measures from the week before, peak and average occupancy outperform midnight census, providing better correlation and narrower prediction intervals.

807 – The relationship between ward occupancy level and staff-to-patient ratio and incidents of aggressive behavior on an acute psychiatric inpatient unit in iran

Objective Violence in psychiatric wards is common, and it is on the rise. This study examined the relationship between ward occupancy level and staff-to-patient ratio and incidents of aggressive behavior, both physical and verbal, on an acute inpatient unit in Iran. Methods Logistic regression was used to analyze data collected from the ward's log of adverse incidents and the ward census over a 12-month period. A physical incident was defined as an unwelcome physical contact or willful damage to property. Incidents of self-harm were excluded. Verbal aggression was any threat of physical or sexual harm. Results Among 381 admissions during the study period, 58 incidents were recorded--25 incidents of verbal aggression and 33 incidents of physical violence. Logistic regression demonstrated that the occupancy level was positively associated with the occurrence of any type of violent incident. The average occupancy level when an incident occurred was 77 percent, compared with 69 percent when no incidents occurred. The average occupancy level was significantly higher when verbal incidents occurred (80 percent) than when physical incidents occurred (70 percent). No association was found between violence and staff-to-patient ratio. Incidents were significantly more likely to occur during the afternoon shifts (3 p.m. to 11 p.m.). Conclusions Crowding was found to be significantly associated with aggressive incidents, and in particular with verbal aggression.

Indices for estimation of dairy free-stall occupancy

The objective of this study was to obtain variables that enabled estimation of variation in stall occupancy times based on the cow-to-stall ratio. First, stall use by Holstein–Friesian cows was analyzed on 16 farms in Galicia, Northwest Spain, by continuously recording cow behavior for 24 h. Intervals of 17 s were recorded every 3 min and 30 s. The video recordings were watched to count the number of simultaneously occupied stalls. Before actually reducing the number of stalls in practice, the variation in the average occupancy time per stall was estimated by using a variable termed ‘predictably altered time of occupancy’ for stall-to-cow ratios of 0.9, 0.8 and 0.7 (111%, 125% and 143% stocking density, respectively). Such an estimate was based on data for an occupancy level of 1.00 stall/cow. The following variables were determined based on data obtained from the initial sample of 16 farms: maximum stall occupancy, average occupancy time per stall, average stall occupancy time per cow, and predictably altered time of occupancy. Three farms were selected from the initial sample. On such farms, 0.8 and 0.7 stall/cow ratios were actually applied to verify the estimates of variation. Other additional variable was determined for the three selected farms: occupancy time at different levels of stall occupancy. The results for a stall-to-cow ratio of 0.7 (143% stocking density) suggested considerable alterations in occupancy time per stall, evidenced by maximum stall occupancy. Such alterations had already been detected from estimates of the predictably altered time of occupancy and were confirmed in practice. The effects of the 0.9 ratio (111% stocking density) were lower because maximum stall occupancy did not exceed 90% on the farms studied. Because the use of intermediate values, such as 0.8 stalls/cow (125% stocking density), can cause trouble in barns with average occupancy levels above 50%, monitoring individual cows with special conditions such as heifers becomes essential. The theoretical determination of the time of occupancy predictably altered by the proposed reduction in the number of stalls is an indicator of the effect of such a reduction on stall use. The predictably altered time of occupancy can be determined for a specific herd, management system and barn based on a ratio of 1.00 cow/stall.

Ward crowding and incidents of violence on an acute psychiatric inpatient unit.

Violence in psychiatric wards is common, and it is on the rise. This study examined the relationship between ward occupancy level and staff-to-patient ratio and incidents of aggressive behavior, both physical and verbal, on an acute inpatient unit in rural New Zealand. Logistic regression was used to analyze data collected from the ward's log of adverse incidents and the ward census over a 12-month period. A physical incident was defined as an unwelcome physical contact or willful damage to property. Incidents of self-harm were excluded. Verbal aggression was any threat of physical or sexual harm. Among 381 admissions during the study period, 58 incidents were recorded--25 incidents of verbal aggression and 33 incidents of physical violence. Logistic regression demonstrated that the occupancy level was positively associated with the occurrence of any type of violent incident. The average occupancy level when an incident occurred was 77 percent, compared with 69 percent when no incidents occurred. The average occupancy level was significantly higher when verbal incidents occurred (80 percent) than when physical incidents occurred (70 percent). No association was found between violence and staff-to-patient ratio. Incidents were significantly more likely to occur during the afternoon shifts (3 p.m. to 11 p.m.). Crowding was found to be significantly associated with aggressive incidents, and in particular with verbal aggression.

Analysis of parameters affecting the internal environment of a naturally ventilated auditorium

A programme of work involving the measurement of ventilation rates, air velocities and temperatures has been completed within a naturally ventilated auditorium in the Queens Building, De Montfort University. Measurements have been recorded for 'winter', 'mid-season' and 'summer' conditions, and average occupancy levels. Measurements carried out in 'winter' and 'mid-season' indicate that the predominant ventilation driving force is the stack effect. However, current control settings of fresh air inlets allow too great a free area to be produced, which causes high room air velocities with associated low temperatures, resulting in high discomfort levels for occupants seated in line with external openings. Results for 'summer' external conditions on particular dates indicate that ventilation rates are driven largely by wind-induced effects, which can be much higher than buoyancy-driven flows. Internal ceiling and wall surface temperatures show little variations with time, owing to the heavyweight nature of the building structure and its exposed areas.

Evaluating British science parks as property investment opportunities

Reports reports the findings of a survey of science park managers and directors in the last quarter of 1994. The development of science parks in Britain has been heavily reliant on investment from public sector sources. A notable reluctance on the part of private sector investors has been a consistent feature. Science parks have, though, seen near continuous growth in their number, in total tenancies and in their rental and capital values; and have sustained relatively high average occupancy levels throughout their brief history. The findings of the survey, thus, draw attention to the various determinants of these apparent successes and highlight the manner in which these determinants may instil disquiet in private sector investors as to the prospects of science parks as investment opportunities. Finds that public sector patronage and philanthropic motives remain high on the agenda of science parks but growing recognizance of the need to secure commercial viability may expedite the improvement of their potential investment profile.

Possible implications from results of animal studies in human risk estimations for benzene: nonlinear dose-response relationship due to saturation of metabolism.

To date, all risk assessment studies on benzene have been based almost exclusively on epidemiological data. We have attempted a more integrated and quantitative evaluation of carcinogenic risk for humans, trying to utilize, in addition to the epidemiological data, all data available, specifically data on metabolism, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity in small rodents. An integrated evaluation of the globality of the available data seems to suggest a progressive saturation of metabolic capacity both for man and rodents between 10 and 100 ppm. The most susceptible target cells seem to be different in humans (predominant induction of myelogenous leukemia) and small rodents (induction of a wide variety of tumors). Nevertheless, both epidemiological and experimental carcinogenicity data tend to indicate a flattening of the response for the highest dosages, again suggesting a general saturation of mechanisms of metabolic activation, extended to different target tissues. From a quantitative point of view, the data suggest a carcinogenic potency at 10 ppm two to three times higher than that computable by a linear extrapolation from data in the 100 ppm range. These observations are in accord with the recent proposal of the European Economic Community of reducing benzene time-weighted average occupational levels from 10 to 5 ppm.

Comparative energy costs of urban transportation systems

Several urban transportation systems are compared on the basis of the energy resources consumed in the manufacture of their vehicle and guideway systems and in their operation. Four systems, the auto, bus, rapid rail and personal rapid transit, are extensively analysed, while the energy characteristics of dial-a-ride systems and the motorcycle are estimated. Analyses of bicycling and walking are also included for a comparison of motorized modes with human propulsion systems. For each system the energy required to manufacture a vehicle, the energy required to manufacture the guideway, and energy of operation are estimated. The manufacture contributions are amortized over component lifetimes and added to the energy of operation to give an estimate of total energy consumed per vehicle-mile by a system. To provide a measure of the potential energy efficiency of the systems, the average energy consumed per available seat-mile is calculated to compare the systems when they are operating at capacity. An example containing assumed average occupancy levels gives a more realistic comparison on the basis of energy consumed per passenger-mile.