Average Education Level Research Articles

Corporate Governance, Financial Innovation and Performance: Evidence from Taiwan’s Banking Industry

This study explores the effect of corporate governance on financial innovation and the effect of financial innovation on performance in Taiwan’s banking industry from 2011 to 2019. The results find that the banks have higher shareholding of institutional investors, ratio of independent directors, attendance rate of directors, average education level of directors and more directors with a financial or accounting background, the greater innovative financial services offered by banks. After 2015, the impact of corporate governance on banks’ innovative financial services has increased. Moreover, the greater financial innovation services, the higher the bank profitability and value, especially after 2015. Finally, offering more innovative financial services can enhance the value of financial-holding subsidiary banks; by contrast, doing the same might negatively affect the profitability of nonfinancial-holding banks.

Awareness, Attitudes and Perceptions of Safety among Slum Residents in Nairobi, Kenya

The mushrooming informal settlements in the urban areas is a 21st-century reality that is common in developing economies such as Kenya. The growth of slums is an indictment of the influx of an increasing number of youth people into urban areas in search of better ways of earning a living. The towns and cities, however, cannot cope with this rapid expansion, thereby condemning a significant proportion of the urban poor into the informal settlements. This study examined the awareness, attitude, and perception of the slum residents in Nairobi, Kenya. The study focused on Kibera, Korogocho, Mathare, and Mukuru slums. The study included residents aged 18 years and above whose participation in the study was determined using systematic random sampling. A total of 659 respondents were involved in completing a survey with the help of the researcher. The data were analysed with the aid of the Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS) software, adopting the descriptive analysis method, and the results were presented using tables. The findings indicated that the living conditions of the residents in these informal settlements were deplorable, a factor that contributed to the crime incidents in the area. The residents had average education levels, most of them were unemployed and considered the economy as their greatest problem, with unemployment being associated with criminality. The residents were fearful of crime happening in their vicinity, though they noted that the rates of criminality had decreased and they expected it to go down in the next year. The residents identified early evening as the peak hour for criminal activity and that they were likely to be victimized outside their homes, even though a significant number of crimes also happened at their homes. The study recommendation sensitization of residents through programs such as workshops targeting distinct groups and the establishment of community radio. The study also recommended the establishment of land tenures in the settlement to facilitate the upgrading of the housing and amenities infrastructure, therefore eliminating environmental factors encouraging criminality.

Intellectual capital and the acquisition of human capital by technology-based new ventures

PurposeIntellectual Capital (IC) is essential to the success of new technology-based firms. A key component of IC is human capital. Human capital is shown to affect firm innovation, growth, and survival positively. This paper investigates the signaling effect of technology-based start-ups’ initial stock of IC on obtaining skilled human capital.Design/methodology/approachThe researcher employs signaling theory to analyze primary data concerning the firm’s initial stock of IC and subsequently hired human capital from founders of 236 technology-based new ventures in the USA Hypotheses are tested through a set of hierarchical linear regressions.FindingsThis study demonstrates that the firms’ IC, in the form of quantity of founders with doctorates and intellectual property, correlates with the quality (average education level) of subsequently hired technical and business human capital. In addition, the quantity of founders with doctorates is correlated with the quantity of subsequently hired technical human capital.Originality/valueThe paper collects retrospective data from founders of technology-based new ventures. While human capital is important for technology-based firms’ innovation and growth, little research has investigated potential connections between firms’ initial IC and subsequent hiring of top-level human capital. This paper investigates these connections explicitly.

"This kid looks like he has everything": 3- to 11-year-old children's concerns for fairness and social preferences when peers differ in social class and race.

This study investigated 3- to 11-year-old US children's (N=348) perceptions of access to resources, social group preferences, and resource distribution decisions and reasoning when hypothetical peers differed in social class (poor or rich) and race (Black or White). Data were collected in 2019. The sample reflected the region where data were collected in terms of gender (44% girls, 30% boys, 1% another identity) and race and ethnicity (46% White, 10% multiracial or multiethnic, 9% Black, 5% Latinx, 2% Asian, 3% another identity), and parents reported a higher average level of education than the regional average. Results revealed both marked age differences in children's perceptions, preferences, decisions, and reasoning and specific combinations of peer group memberships that were especially likely to receive preferential treatment. With age, children perceived that rich peers had greater access to resources than poor peers, but when both peers were poor, White peers were perceived to have more resources than Black peers. Social group preferences changed with age, from mixed social class and racial group preferences, to preferences for rich peers, to dislike for rich peers. Resource allocation decisions and reasoning reflected both social group and fairness concerns: young children distributed more to White peers especially if they were also rich, participants in middle childhood explicitly favored rich peers regardless of their race, and older children distributed more to poor peers and reasoned about either moral concerns for equity or social class stereotypes. Thus, overall, younger children's responses often reflected broader economic and racial inequalities while older children often sought to create more equity, though not always for moral reasons.

Childcare over the Business Cycle

We estimate the impact of macroeconomic conditions on the child care market. We find that the industry is substantially more exposed to the business cycle than other low-wage industries and responds more strongly to negative shocks than positive ones. Indeed, child care employment requires more time to recover than the rest of the economy. Although the reduction in supply may pose difficulties for parents, we find evidence that center quality is countercyclical. When unemployment rates are higher, child care workers have on average higher levels of education and experience, turnover rates are lower, and consumer reviews on Yelp.com are higher.

Evaluation of the cognitive-motor training effectiveness in combination with drug therapy among patients with moderate cognitive disorders: the own research results

Introduction. Non-drug methods of therapy for cognitive impairment is one of the topical areas of neurology. Studies have shown that cognitive training may be beneficial for maintaining mental alertness in healthy older adults, while patients with dementia and mild cognitive impairment are more likely to benefit from cognitive-motor training or rehabilitation. It is possible that the severity and type of cognitive disorders, as well as patients’ adherence to training, the correct construction of tasks, may affect the effectiveness of non-drug therapy for cognitive disorders.Аim. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive-motor training developed at Sechenov University in patients with moderate cognitive impairment (MCI).Materials and methods. 41 patients were included in the study, including 8 women and 33 men, the average age of patients was 60.3 ± 8.5 years, the average level of education was 14.2 ± 8.7 years, of which 15 patients met the criteria AD, 26 – VCI criteria. Patients underwent quantitative neuropsychological testing, assessment of emotional disorders, and also assessed such indicators as satisfaction with the quality of life, adherence to therapy. Subsequently, the patients were divided into groups of individual and group cognitive training. Classes with patients were held according to the standard scheme, 30–50 minutes a day, for 40 days. After 3 months, 10 patients were randomly selected from the individual training group and received an additional course of group cognitive-motor training.Results. Тhe study showed that after 1.5 months, patients showed a significant decrease in the severity of cognitive disorders (p < 0.05). The greatest positive dynamics was noted in relation to the level of attention (p < 0.05), memory (including primary modal-nonspecific mnestic impairment, p < 0.05), logical operations (p < 0.05). The patients included in the study also showed a significant decrease in the severity of depression (p < 0.05). The analysis showed that significant positive dynamics was recorded both in patients of the individual CT group and in patients who received group CT (p < 0.05). The positive effect on cognitive functions was maintained during the three months of follow-up. Comparative analysis of study patients after 6 months showed that patients who received additional sessions with a trainer reported an additional improvement in well-being. These differences were statistically significant, despite the small number of patients included in the repeat CT group (p < 0.05).Conclusions. The effectiveness of cognitive-motor training in patients with MCI was noted. The results obtained allow us to recommend this type of cognitive-motor training for use in clinical practice by neurologists, therapists and psychiatrists as an additional effective method for the treatment of cognitive impairment.

Workforce education and corporate innovation

The average workforce education near firms’ research centers facilitates firms’ matching with innovation talents and acquisition of knowledge. This study documents a positive association between the average education level in the metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) where firms’ research centers are located and the quantity and quality of innovation outputs. The results are confirmed by controlling for various measures of MSA-level economic, population, and employment conditions, as well as research-center level analyses which control for firm-year fixed effects. We further find that local workforce education is more important for firms that are large, less labor-intensive, in non-high-tech industries and located in low education regions. The evidence highlights the importance of having access to well-educated local workforce for corporate innovation. JEL Classification: G30, J24, O31

Correlation of Fetal Growth Between Last Menstrual Period and third Trimester Ultrasound Pregnancy on Ethnic Minangkabau

BACKGROUND: Fetal growth is a vital thing that determines the quality of life at birth. Because the multinational studies available today represent a very limited choice of a varied world population.
 AIM: this study is expected to provide results in the form of more parameters. accurate in determining fetal growth estimates.
 MATERIAL AND METHODS: This study is an analytical study using a cross sectional approach determine fetal growth biometry in the Minangkabau ethnic group. The selected sample was pregnant women who came to check their pregnancy in December 2020 at Fetomaternal clinic Hospital M. Djamil Padang and Network Hospital in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology Faculty of Medicine Andalas University. Bivariate analysis using Pearson correlation test because the data distribution was normally distributed with P value <0,05 and then multivariate analysis using linear regression.
 RESULTS: Five hundred and twenty pregnant women who came to check at 3rd trimester (28-40 weeks by US). The characteristics of the research subjects were the average age of pregnant women ranging from 21-39 years with the average was 28.49 ± 4.5 years, parity 1 as many as 203 people (46,7%), and the average level of education at senior high school as many as 431 people (82,9%), and there were 123 working pregnant women (42,5%). Based on the Pearson analysis, Correlation between of each variable BPD, HC, AC, FL, and HL to LMP, there is the strongest correlation between LMP and AC, which is r = 0,799 and the weakest correlation between LMP and HL is r = 0,162, for all variables is very significant (p value 0,000). The multivariate analysis with linear regression, there is a significant value that the simultaneous measurement of biometric variables (BPD, HC, AC, FL, HL) on the LMP would be 84.6% more significant.
 CONCLUSIONS: There is a significant correlation fetal growth between LMP and 3rd trimester ultrasound pregnancy with variable BPD, HC, AC, FL, HL on minangkabau ethnic

Financial literacy and its relation to lottery gambling consumption

ABSTRACT This study uses restricted-version data from the 2018 state-by-state survey of the National Financial Capability Study to investigate the relationship between financial literacy and lottery consumption frequency. To control for the potential endogeneity of financial literacy, I employ the ordered probit model with an endogenous regressor by instrumenting the average education level of a zip-code area for financial literacy. The results indicate that an increase in financial literacy significantly reduces the lottery consumption of those who play with moderate frequency, while no marked curbing effects are found for heavy lottery players. This suggests that different policies are needed to reduce lottery consumption for those who engage with moderate frequency and those who engage with high frequency.

The Effects of Postoperative Physician Phone Calls for Hand and Wrist Fractures: A Prospective, Randomized Controlled Trial.

BackgroundIn this study, we sought to determine if postoperative physician phone calls following hand and wrist fracture surgery improve patient outcomes, satisfaction, and treatment adherence.MethodologyWe prospectively enrolled 24 consecutive adult patients who underwent outpatient surgery for isolated hand and wrist fractures at a single, metropolitan, safety-net hospital over one year to receive an additional physician phone call starting on postoperative day one. We measured preoperative and postoperative Brief Michigan Hand Questionnaire (bMHQ) composite score, overall satisfaction on a five-point Likert scale, compliance with treatment recommendations, presence of complications, discharge instructions reading level, and clarity of discharge and follow-up instructions. The surgical team was blinded to the treatment arm.ResultsThe bMHQ score improved 26% after surgery; however, there was no difference in absolute score change between groups (12.2 vs. 6.5, p = 0.69). Most patients were satisfied throughout all stages of care, but postoperative satisfaction did not differ between groups (1.4 vs. 2.5, p = 0.21). There was a stronger correlation between patient hand function and satisfaction starting one month after surgery (R2 = 0.502, p = 0.002) than preoperatively (R2 = 0.252, p = 0.029). Immediately following surgery, most patients stated that discharge instructions were clear, and the average readability was below the average patient education level. Despite this, 13% removed their splint or Kirschner wires, 67% did not follow up within a week of recommendation, 62% did not complete postoperative treatment, and 33% had complications.ConclusionsPostoperative phone calls by physicians did not improve compliance with recommendations, patient-rated outcome measures, or clinical outcomes among our hand and wrist fracture patient population.

Handler Proficiency (Nahkoda) Dnature Operationalize Purse Saine Fishing Gear

This study aims to: (1) find out the skills of handlers in operating purse seine fishing gear (2) Knowing the fishing ground of purse seine fishing gear (3) Knowing the factors that affect fishing operations with purse seine fishing gear. The research methods used are survey methods, interviews and questionnaires. The data were analyzed descriptively. A total of 30 purse seine handlers at PPP Lampulo have been respondents in this study. The results showed that the purse seine ship handlers in Lampulo PPP are mostly 41-50 years old, the average handler education level is junior high school, the majority of handlers in Lampulo PPP have more than 5 years of experience, handlers at Lampulo PPP only have a Certificate of Proficiency (SKK) in operating ships. Generally, purse seine boat handlers at PPP Lampulo have satisfactory skills when viewed from how to determine fishing grounds, search for fish swarms, collect schools of fish and operating techniques for fishing gear.

Trend of maternal education in Bangladesh from 2004-2018: Analysis of demographic surveillance data.

BackgroundMaternal education is universally recognised as a major factor in positive societal indicators (health, wellbeing, overall education, etc.) and a country’s growth and economic sustainability, yet the underlying factors contributing to maternal education have not been widely investigated, especially in developing countries.ObjectiveThis study investigated the 15-year trend of maternal education in Bangladesh (2004–2018) to identify the factors contributing to maternal education.MethodThis study used publicly available cross-data from five consecutive Bangladesh Demographic and Health Surveys (2004, 2007, 2011, 2014 and 2018). Level of maternal education was grouped as ‘no education’, ‘incomplete primary’, ‘complete primary’, ‘incomplete secondary’, ‘complete secondary’ and ‘higher education’ (reference group). The differences in factors/exposure variables suspected to contribute to maternal education were measured for these groups for 2004–2018, and a survey multinomial logistic regression was performed to estimate the explanatory value of these factors.ResultsFrom 2004–2018, there was a 62% gross reduction of the no education group and a 61% gross increase in the higher education group. A gross increase was also observed for complete secondary (49%), incomplete secondary (39%) and complete primary education (14%). In multivariate analysis, in rural areas, in 2018, the probability of a woman being in the complete primary, incomplete primary or no education groups was increased (adjusted relative risk ratio: 1.21, 1.40 and 1.59), compared to 2004 (0.73, 1.09, 1.12), respectively. From 2004–2018, the factor of no television watching reduced the probability of maternal education levels. Having a husband/partner who had no education increased the probability of a woman’s education level. The probability of all maternal education levels decreased across all wealth index groups.ConclusionThe data suggest that average maternal education level in Bangladesh increased from 2004–2018. However, an integrated effort is required to improve factors associated with maternal education to both increase maternal education and Bangladesh’s long-term sustainability.

Avaliação da fadiga e da qualidade de vida de pacientes com câncer colorretal em quimioterapia

To evaluate fatigue and health-related quality of life of colorectal cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. Descriptive study conducted with 69 patients between January and September/2019 in a public hospital in Minas Gerais. Instruments used: sociodemographic and clinical questionnaire, Quality of Life Questionnaire-Core30 and Piper Fatigue Scale, analyzed according to measures of frequency, mean and standard deviation by the software PSPP. Most patients were women over 60 years old, married, retired and housewives, with an average level of education. The scores of general health status, social, physical, emotional and role functioning were considered satisfactory (means 50 to 70), cognitive function was good (mean higher than 70); the most prevalent symptoms were loss of appetite, fatigue, pain and insomnia. As for fatigue, all dimensions had a mean value <4, considered mild fatigue. Quality of life had satisfactory scores and fatigue was classified as mild in patients undergoing chemotherapy.

Internet diffusion and interregional digital divide in Russia: trends, factors, and the influence of the pandemic

The demand for digital technologies has been growing due to a shift in the technological and economic paradigm. The need for online services has increased since the beginning of the COVID pandemic. There are significant disparities between Russian regions in the digital technology accessibility and the development of computer skills. In 2020, the Internet diffused rapidly in most regions, although previously, there had been a slowdown. As markets got saturated with digital services, the digital divide between Russian regions narrowed. Overall, the Internet use patterns are consistent with those of the spatial diffusion of innovations. Amongst the leaders, there are regions home to the largest agglomerations and northern territories of Russia, whereas those having a high proportion of rural population lag behind. Coastal and border regions (St. Petersburg, the Kaliningrad region, Karelia, Primorsky Krai, etc.) have better access to the Internet due to their proximity to the centres of technological innovations as well as the high intensity of external relations. Leading regions have an impact on their neighbours through spatial diffusion. Econometrically, access to the Internet depends on income, the average age and level of education, and its use depends on the business climate and Internet accessibility factors. Regional markets are gradually getting more saturated with digital services and technologies. The difference between regions in terms of access to the Internet is twofold, whereas, in terms of digital technology use, the gap is manifold. In many regions, the share of online commerce, which became the driver of economic development during the lockdown, is minimal. Based on the results of the study, several recommendations have been formulated.

AN EVALUATION OF THE LIFE QUALITY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE GREATER CAUCASUS PROVINCE OF THE REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN)

Purpose. All socio-economic reforms implemented in the country are aimed at improving the quality of life of the population. Thus, despite the implementation of a plethora of social reforms, there are still issues in this area. The quality of life of the population is influenced by demographic indicators, population health indicators, education level, income and other factors. Based on these indicators, the level of development of the region is determined. The essential purpose of the study is to determine the living standards of the population in the region, to investigate the causes of the identified problems, identify areas for their elimination, and make scientifically sound proposals. The results of the study may be one of the ways to increase the human development index in the region in the future. Research method. The analysis is based on the data of the Institute of Geography of the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan, the State Statistics Committee, and the works of scientists who have conducted research in the economic and social spheres. The study analyses the primary results of socio-economic reforms in the country, the current state of demographic development, the problems in this area and their solutions. Statistical analysis, comparative analysis and generalisation methods were used in the research process. Results. The longevity and healthy lifestyle of the population should be ensured in the regions. This is important for increasing the productive activity and social welfare of the population. Health and life expectancy depend on the quality of health care in the country, as well as in the regions. For this purpose, the application of state-of-the-art technologies in health care and the training of qualified personnel will allow achieve high results. Quality health care and a healthy lifestyle are likely to increase life expectancy in the regions. Scientific innovations. For the first time, the article examines the assessment of the quality of life of the population in the economic regions of the Greater Caucasus province. The analysis of the average life expectancy, education level, and income of the population in the studied area according to statistical indicators is given. These indicators were calculated based on current statistics and changes in this area were investigated from various aspects. It was determined that the quality of life of the population is formed under the influence of social, economic and demographic factors. The analysis indicates that the socio-economic processes taking place in the country have a direct impact on the lives of the population. Thus, during the transition period, socio-economic difficulties, loss of business opportunities, and reduced incomes in the social sphere had a negative impact on the quality of life of the population. Thus, in order to improve the welfare of the population in the Republic of Azerbaijan, in order to achieve greater success on the path to human development in the future, a purposeful state policy or certain action plan should be implemented in the regions, including the Greater Caucasus province. Practical importance. The results and recommendations of the research can be used in the implementation of measures and programs to improve the quality of life of the population in the Greater Caucasus province.

Komparativno istraživanje nivoa psihološkog sagorevanja među nastavnicima fizičkog vaspitanja i sporta u srednjoj i višoj školi (Alžir-eEl Bajad)

The objective of the study is to determine the degree of extent of the phenomenon of psychological exhaustion among teachers of physical education and sports at the secondary and middle levels of education. For this study, the researchers relied on the descriptive approach for it fits the subject of the study. The sample consisted of (60) teachers, including (40) of the average level of education chosen at random. The researchers opted for the burnout scale introduced by Seidman and Zager 1994 and translated into Arabic by Adel Abdullah (1994). After statistical treatment, the results showed that teachers of physical education and sports are characterized by moderate degrees of psychological exhaustion. The study also revealed statistically significant differences in favor of middle school teachers.

Child stature, maternal education, and early childhood development in Nigeria

Data from the 2016-17 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey from Nigeria are used to study the relationship between child stature, mother's years of education, and indicators of early childhood development (ECD). The relationships are contrasted between two empirical approaches: the conventional approach whereby control variables are selected in an ad-hoc manner, and the double machine-learning (DML) approach that employs data-driven methods to select controls from a much wider set of variables and thus reducing potential omitted variable bias. Overall, the analysis confirms that maternal education and the incidence of chronic malnutrition have a significant direct effect on measures of early childhood development. The point estimates based on the ad-hoc specification tend to be larger in absolute value than those based on the DML specification. Frequently, the point estimates based on the ad-hoc specification fall inside the confidence interval of the DML point estimates, suggesting that in these cases the omitted variable bias is not serious enough to prevent making causal inferences based on the ad-hoc specification. However, there are instances where the omitted variable bias is sufficiently large for the ad hoc specification to yield a statistically significant relationship when in fact the more robust DML specification suggests there is none. The DML approach also reveals a more complex picture that highlights the role of context. In rural areas, mother's education affects early childhood development both directly and indirectly through its impact on the nutritional status of both older and younger children. In contrast, in urban areas, where the average level of maternal education is much higher, increases in a mother's education have only a direct effect on child ECD measures but no indirect effect through child nutrition. Thus, DML provides a practical and feasible approach to reducing threats to internal validity for robust inferences and policy design based on observational data.

Evaluation of the Dietary Pattern of Rural Residents in the South of the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil

&#x0D; Objective: We tried to learn about the eating habits and their possible consequences on the health of rural residents in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil in view of the importance of knowing dietary habits in the face of globalization and the risk of developing chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs).&#x0D; Methods: For this, 1344 people were stratified and interviewed between January 2015 and November 2019, individuals aged 18 years or over, working or residing in the rural area of ​​the micro-region studied were included. Epidemiological, anthropometric and clinical data and assessment of dietary pattern were collected. A survey built and validated by Vigitel was used, and the interviewees received scores referring to food consumption in recent weeks. Thus, they were divided into 3 groups, according to their score, with the highest scoring tertile classified as “adequate”, the medium tertile as “intermediate” and the lowest as “inadequate”.&#x0D; Results: As a result, most interviewees were men (62.7%), overweight (54.03%), between 44.1 years old, and the average educational level of 6.64 years. Women had higher averages of schooling time and higher values ​​of BMI and waist circumference when compared to males. In addition, a higher percentage of women fit the high dietary pattern when compared to men. Most respondents (54.03%) were classified as overweight, followed by normal weight (41.8%) and underweight (4.06%) when assessing BMI. Older age and level of education varied and were associated to a better quality of diet. It is remarkable that the eating habits of the rural population are increasingly like those in urban areas. Even with better food quality, women have worse anthropometric indices than men. Even though food consumption has changed, it does not appear in the habits of older people.&#x0D; Conclusion: However, it is concluded that public policies that promote healthy eating for rural residents are needed.

“It’s a long story…” – impression management in South African corporate reporting

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate whether companies listed on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange use impression management techniques to obscure financial performance across the corporate reporting suite.Design/methodology/approachMixed-effect linear regression models were used to examine whether there is a relationship between the financial performance of a company and the length or complexity of the reports produced.FindingsConsistent with trends examined internationally, companies with lower financial performance tend to present lengthier disclosures throughout the reporting complement. However, there is limited evidence to suggest a definitive relationship between report complexity and performance. Corporate reports have maintained a consistent level of complexity and are not easily readable.Social implicationsThis paper is unique as it simultaneously considers multiple corporate reports, including the annual financial statements, integrated reports and market announcements. The paper contributes to the limited body of literature on impression management from emerging economies.Originality/valueA comparison of the complexity measures to the average education level of South Africans indicates that most corporate reports are not readable to the layman investor. Thus, despite there being no definitive relationship between complexity and performance, there is impetus to simplify corporate reporting.

The impact of air pollution on financial reporting quality: evidence from China

AbstractIn this study, we investigate whether the unpleasant mood of managers caused by air pollution leads to poorer decision‐making quality. Using a sample of 9,282 firm‐year observations from 2014 to 2017 in China, we show that (i) the mood of managers becomes more negative as air quality decreases; and (ii) there is a negative relation between air pollution and financial reporting quality. Furthermore, this association is stronger for firms with (i) weaker corporate governance; and (ii) top management teams with a lower average age, fewer females and a lower average educational level. Our results hold through various robustness tests.