Average Earnings Research Articles

THEORETICAL AND APPLIED FOUNDATIONS OF EMPLOYEE MATERIAL LIABILITY

This article delves into the theoretical and practical aspects of employee material liability, focusing on the standards governing the material liability of employees in Ukraine and the European Union. The research aims to analyze the current Ukrainian legislation and international practices to improve approaches to regulating material liability within a market economy. General scientific methods of cognition, such as analysis, comparison, systematization, and generalization, were employed during the study. The findings reveal that Ukrainian legislation stipulates four main types of material liability: full, limited, enhanced, and collective. Full material liability, as regulated by Article 134 of the Labor Code of Ukraine (LCU), applies when there is a written agreement between the employee and the employer, particularly in cases where the employee is entrusted with material assets for use or safekeeping. Key documents for this include an authorization and an agreement. Additional full liability arises in cases of intentional damage or when the employee is under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Limited material liability is applied when the losses are less than the average earnings of the employee and does not cover amounts exceeding this threshold. The procedure for calculating average wages is regulated by the CMU Resolution No. 100 of February 8, 1995. Enhanced material liability pertains to employees involved in the handling of precious metals, stones, and currency valuables and can reach up to double or triple the value of the incurred damages. Collective liability applies to groups of employees jointly responsible for damage caused to the enterprise. The practical significance of the research lies in the potential for enhancing the legal framework governing employee material liability in Ukraine, taking into account European experience.

Impact of incident rheumatoid arthritis on earnings: a nationwide sibling comparison study.

RA is known to impact work ability but much of this knowledge comes from historical comparisons vs the general population that neither reflects current RA management, nor distinguishes between effects of RA and pre-existing socio-economic conditions of patients. We therefore aimed to examine earnings of patients before and after RA diagnosis, using recent data and sibling comparisons. Swedish register data were used including demographic information and healthcare utilization. Participants were patients with RA (aged 30-60 years, diagnosed with RA 2006-2017) identified in the Swedish National Patient Register, and their same-sex siblings (n = 2433:2433; mean 48 y; 72% women). Earnings data for 2001-2019 were retrieved from Statistics Sweden and analysed from 5 years before to 5 years after RA diagnosis. No differences in average earnings were observed between siblings during the 5 years before diagnosis, but during the 5 years after diagnosis, patients with RA earned on average 5.4% less annually (-1430€[95%CI -2130, -720]) than same-sexed siblings. The change in earnings for the subgroup diagnosed 2006-2010 was -8.2% (-2020€[95%CI -2930, -1120]) but for patients diagnosed 2011-2017 there was no statistically significant change in earnings compared with siblings (-1.5%; -420€[95%CI -1490, 640]). Subgroup analyses demonstrated a more negative impact on earnings for older individuals and those with lower education level. RA diagnosis was associated with lower earnings in comparison with same-sex siblings, particularly for older individuals and those with lower education level. The negative impact of RA on earnings declined or disappeared over the study period.

Nonseparable panel models with index structure and correlated random effects

. To facilitate semiparametric estimation of general discrete-choice, censored, sample selection, and other complex panel data models, we study identification and estimation of nonseparable multiple-index models in panel data with correlated random effects and a fixed number of time periods. The parameter vectors of interest are shown to be identified up to multiplicative constants and the average marginal effects are identified under the assumption that the distribution of individual effects depends on the explanatory variables only through their averages across time. Under this assumption, we propose to estimate the unknown parameters by the generalized method of moments based on the average and outer product of the difference of derivatives of the regression function. The rate of convergence and asymptotic distribution is established both for the proposed parameter estimates and the average marginal effects. We conduct Monte Carlo simulation studies to assess finite-sample performance of the proposed estimator. We also use it to model dynamic earnings of women, and using our general identification results, we find a negative effect of the number of children not only on the selection into employment as usual, but also on the average earnings.

Analisis Kinerja Keuangan Bank BUMN dan Bank Swasta Indonesia: Studi Komparatif

Purpose: This study assesses and compares the financial performance of state-owned and private banks in Indonesia from 2019 to 2021. This study focuses on evaluating key financial indicators to monitor the financial structure and efficiency of banking institutions continuously amid increasing competition in the banking sector. Methodology: This study utilizes several financial ratios and applies independent sample t-tests to analyze the financial performance of state-owned and private banks. The key ratios analyzed include (Equity to Total Assets Ratio), ECTAR (Equity to Customer Assets Ratio), IMAEAR (interest margin to average earnings assets ratio), LLCR (Loan Loss Coverage Ratio), DTCR (Debt to Capital Ratio), LDR (Loan to Deposit Ratio), and CAR (Capital Adequacy Ratio). Results: State-owned banks are financially weaker than private banks. Furthermore, there is no significant difference in the average financial performance of state-owned and private banks when measured using EATAR and ECTAR ratios. However, clear differences are observed between these two banking groups in terms of the IMAEAR, LLCR, DTCR, LDR, and CAR ratios. Limitations: This study is limited to the analysis of financial performance from 2019 to 2021, which may not fully capture long-term trends or the impact of external economic conditions, such as global financial crises or regulatory changes. Additionally, this study focuses only on a specific set of financial ratios. Contribution: This study contributes to the body of knowledge by providing a comparative analysis of the financial performance of state-owned and private Indonesian banks. It offers valuable insights for banking institutions, regulators, and investors on how financial performance differs across banking groups, highlighting areas where state-owned banks may need to improve their financial strength.

Women and Minorities in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM): Evidence From Trinidad and Tobago

Using a quantitative research approach, this study aims at investigating the wage returns and the gender wage gap of Trinidad and Tobago’s minority groups in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. To do this, data from the Continuous Sample Survey of Population (CSSP), for the period 1991–2015, is used to estimate a Mincerian earnings function via the quantile regression method, after which the standard Oaxaca–Blinder Decomposition method is employed to decompose the wage differentials. This analysis revealed that regardless of ethnic class (i.e. minority group [persons who are of mixed, white, Syrian/Lebanese, Chinese, and other heritage] or majority group [persons of an Indian and African heritage]), there are more men trained in STEM than women. While the average earnings of female minority workers in STEM are higher than that of male minority workers, the earnings of male majority workers are higher than that of female majority workers. The gender wage gap between minority workers in STEM appears to be much more prominent (9.8%) than that of majority workers (8.5%). This implies that the issue of gender inequality in STEM is more pronounced amongst minority workers in Trinidad and Tobago.

Unbundling returns to postsecondary degrees and skills: evidence from Colombia

ABSTRACT Using longitudinal data of college graduates in Colombia, we estimate labor market returns to postsecondary degrees and to various skills—including literacy, numeracy, foreign language, and field-specific skills. Graduates of academic programs and schools of higher reputation obtain higher earnings relative to vocational public programs. A one standard deviation increase in each skill predicts average earnings increases of 1–3%. Returns vary along the earnings distribution, with tenure, with the degree of job specialization, and by gender. Our results imply that degrees and skills capture different human capital components that are rewarded differently in the labor market.

The costs of home monitoring by telemedicine versus standard care for inflammatory bowel diseases - a Danish register-based, five-year follow-up study.

There are few studies on the cost-effectiveness of telemedicine for inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). We assessed the long-term cost-effectiveness of a telemedicine solution (eCare) compared to standard care (sCare), as well as its efficacy according to patient-reported outcomes (PRO). Between 2015 and 2020 we conducted a retrospective, register-based study among patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). Direct and indirect healthcare costs over a five-year period were obtained from Danish registers and compared to a control group. Costs were estimated on a yearly basis from one year before, until five years after, inclusion in the trial. Patients were divided into cohorts of those not receiving (cohort 1), and those receiving (cohort 2), biologics. We recruited 574 IBD patients. In cohort 1 (61.5%), average total direct costs and total earnings per patient per year were €14,043 and €307,793 in eCare compared to €16,226 and €252,166 in sCare, respectively. In cohort 2 (38.5%), average total direct costs and total earnings were €73,916 and €215,833 in eCare compared to €41,748 and €203,667 in sCare, respectively. PRO showed increasing quality of life and was higher in cohort 1 than cohort 2. Disease activity among CD patients increased after years 3 and 4 in cohorts 1 and 2, respectively. Telemedicine is cost-effective for patients not receiving biologics. However, treatment with biologics is more expensive for patients enrolled in eCare. Careful attention to PRO in eCare improves quality of life and could prolong time to relapse.

Early-life gut bacterial community structure predicts disease risk and athletic performance in horses bred for racing

Gut bacterial communities have a profound influence on the health of humans and animals. Early-life gut microbial community structure influences the development of immunological competence and susceptibility to disease. For the Thoroughbred racehorse, the significance of early-life microbial colonisation events on subsequent health and athletic performance is unknown. Here we present data from a three-year cohort study of horses bred for racing designed to explore interactions between early-life gut bacterial community structure, health events in later life and athletic performance on the racetrack. Our data show that gut bacterial community structure in the first months of life predicts the risk of specific diseases and athletic performance up to three years old. Foals with lower faecal bacterial diversity at one month old had a significantly increased risk of respiratory disease in later life which was also associated with higher relative abundance of faecal Pseudomonadaceae. Surprisingly, athletic performance up to three years old, measured by three different metrics, was positively associated with higher faecal bacterial diversity at one month old and with the relative abundance of specific bacterial families. We also present data on the impact of antibiotic exposure of foals during the first month of life. This resulted in significantly lower faecal bacterial diversity at 28 days old, a significantly increased risk of respiratory disease in later life and a significant reduction in average prize money earnings, a proxy for athletic performance. Our study reveals associations between early-life bacterial community profiles and health events in later life and it provides evidence of the detrimental impact of antimicrobial treatment in the first month of life on health and performance outcomes in later life. For the first time, this study demonstrates a relationship between early-life gut bacterial communities and subsequent athletic performance that has implications for athletes of all species including humans.

THE HUNGARIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY SECTOR IN THE MIRROR OF THE CRISES

The economic impact of the tourism and hospitality sector as an economic system is partly general, similar to other sectors of the economy, and partly specific. At the same time, the sector is a major driving force for macro-economies, with positive effects on various sectors of the economy. Based on an analysis of current statistical data, the study formulates the characteristics of the sector: the share of hotels and restaurants in GDP, the revenue from accommodation fees of commercial accommodation establishments, the evolution of the turnover of guests in commercial accommodation establishments, the average gross monthly earnings of employed persons, etc. Analysing the data for the period under review, 2008-2021, we can see that Hungary started to see some growth in employment and average gross earnings after 2010, but still lagging behind the targets set in 2005. In line with international trends, tourism in Hungary has developed positively in several areas by 2019, reaching or exceeding pre-2008 crisis levels, with overall growth in the sector exceeding the national economy average. However, the sector's performance was also significantly affected by the sharp decline caused by Covid-19 and the war situation in 2022. The aim of the analysis is to present the impact of the international financial crisis starting in 2008 and the Covid-19 epidemic in March 2020, to compare the effects of the two crises on GDP, labour market factors, with a special focus on the accommodation and food services sector.

Is private education worth it? Evidence from school-to-work transitions in Chile

Using comprehensive longitudinal data from Chile, we examine the impact of attending a private high school on labor market outcomes. The empirical strategy exploits conditional independence assumptions and leverages the effects of self-selection based on ability. We establish that private high schools boost average adult earnings by 99–144 dollars a month (relative to public schools), equivalent to a 15%–22% premium. We then explore potential channels behind these effects. Both academic and non-academic factors emerge as mediators. Our findings highlight the importance of financial resources, as education investments have long-term impacts on private high school students, while yielding negligible effects for those attending public and voucher schools. Finally, we document the prominent role of firms as mediators of the private school advantages during the school-to-work transition. Our analysis provides new insights into the association between school choice and income disparities, even after controlling for pre-labor market academic performance.

Idaho

This article is an update on public school finance in the state of Idaho. The article includes updated information regarding the following topics: funding priorities for P–12, changes to the funding formula for P–12, pressing state issues affecting P–12, and exclusive to P–12, what are the alternatives to traditional public schools offered by your state and what does the trend in funding look like for these alternatives. As of 2022, the state of Idaho maintains the lowest per pupil expenditure (PPE) in the nation, ranking 51st when including the District of Columbia. Idaho’s PPE was $8,376 in 2021, which comes in at 58% of the national average of $14,360. The average Idaho teacher’s salary is $51,817 which ranks 45th in the nation. Idaho also ranks last in K–12 education support staff average earnings at $25,830. However, in 2021 the state of Idaho interestingly ranked 17th in student achievement according to The National Assessment of Educational Progress ( Staff, 2021 ). The major funding priorities for the state of Idaho related to education are as follows: funding the Career Ladder, full-day kindergarten, teacher compensation, literacy initiative, and the opportunity scholarship. A couple of pressing state issues for Idaho include the teacher shortage and the public-school funding formula.

Earnings trajectories of individuals in same-sex and different-sex couples: Evidence from administrative data

We unite two interrelated bodies of work – a growing literature on sexual orientation earnings gaps and a rich tradition of research on intragenerational career trajectories – to examine how labor markets and life courses interact to produce gender and sexual orientation inequalities over time. We use the 1982–2019 Canadian Longitudinal Administrative Databank, a unique longitudinal database constructed from tax records, to answer core questions about the mechanisms that underlie sexual orientation earnings inequality. Growth curve models reveal how sexual orientation earnings gaps evolve over time spent in the workforce, and how they relate to differences in demographic and work characteristics for those in same- and different-sex couples at various points in the life course. We find that sexual orientation earnings gaps converge and diverge at unique career stages for men and women, and at each stage relate to unique mechanisms, especially work characteristics and family status. We find little significant variation in average earnings trajectories by sexual orientation across cohorts who were subject to differing legal and social environments surrounding sexual orientation.

The Effects of Wage Information on Support for Redistributive Spending

Public support for redistributive policies (e.g., Medicaid) depends in part on the perceived need and deservingness of beneficiaries. However, the average citizen is not well informed about the economic conditions of their fellow citizens. In this article, we explore how information about average earnings of the working poor (a group generally seen as deserving) influences support for redistributive spending. Two survey experiments test whether support for such spending is affected by information about the average incomes of low-wage occupations (e.g., home health aides and retail sales workers). We additionally explore potential mechanisms for this effect, including empathy. An exploratory study finds an effect, but a pre-registered confirmatory study yields substantively small findings with inconsistent significance. Even when participants both receive detailed information about low-wage occupations’ salaries and are encouraged to recall people who they know in those jobs, the treatment has no substantial effect. Given the strength of this treatment and the lack of consistent effects, we conclude that interventions providing information about low-income salaries (e.g., in news coverage or interpersonal conversation) are unlikely to have a substantive effect on support for redistribution.

Programs of study and earnings dynamics

University programs differ in the subsequent earnings processes of their enrollees, including many features that students might care about to differing degrees such as the level of average earnings, earnings growth, and volatility. Do the earnings features of a university program’s enrollees reflect the causal effect of enrolling in that program or the self-selection of students into that program? Would students experience a different earnings process if they enrolled in a different program of study? To estimate the causal impact of enrolling in a program of study on the enrollees’ future earnings process, we exploit a discontinuity built into the Danish national university admissions system, which provides quasi-random assignment of similar applicants to different programs. We leverage the rich cross-program variation in the enrollees’ future earnings processes to measure the impact of entering a program whose enrollees experience high earnings levels, growth, and volatility on their own subsequent earnings level, growth, and volatility. We find that a student’s subsequent earnings levels and volatility – but not their earnings growth – are caused by entering programs of study whose enrollees have those features.

Immigration and Business Dynamics: Evidence from U.S. Firms

Abstract This paper studies the impact of immigration on U.S. local business dynamics using a comprehensive collection of survey and administrative data. It finds heterogeneous impacts across the employer productivity distribution that favor higher-productivity firms and lead to increases in average local earnings. Responses to immigration along the exit margin are particularly important. Immigrant inflows cull establishments from low-productivity firms while preserving establishments from high-productivity firms. Overall, reduced exit accounts for 43% of immigrant-induced job creation and 41% of immigrant-induced earnings growth. A general equilibrium model proposes a mechanism that ties immigrant workers to high-productivity employers and shows how accounting for changes to the employer productivity distribution can yield substantially larger estimates of immigrant-generated economic surplus than canonical models of labor demand.

Identifying and prioritizing factors influencing the social insurance contribution of unorganized workers

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to explore and prioritize the factors that determine the social insurance contribution of unorganized workers.Design/methodology/approachA two-stage procedure was adopted to recognize and prioritize factors influencing the social insurance participation of unorganized workers: first, crucial factors influencing unorganized workers’ contribution towards social insurance were identified by employing exploratory factor analysis, and in the second phase, the fuzzy analytical hierarchal process was applied to rank the specified criteria and then sub-criteria by assigning weights.FindingsFour broad factors were identified, namely, economic, political, operational and socio-psychological, that significantly influence unorganized workers’ contribution towards social insurance. Later findings revealed that the prime influencer of unorganized workers’ contribution is employment contracts followed by average earnings, delivery of quality services, eligibility and accessibility.Practical implicationsThe research findings are feasible as the basic propositions are based on real-world scenario. The identification and ranking of factors have the potential to be used as a checklist for policymakers when designing pension and social insurance for unorganized workers. If it is not possible to consider all, the criteria and sub-criteria assigned upper rank can be given priority to extend pension coverage for a large group of working poor.Social implicationsThe key factors driving social insurance contributions have been highlighted by studying the stakeholders’ perceptions at a micro level. By comprehending the challenges, there is a possibility of covering a large section of the working poor into social insurance coverage.Originality/valueThis paper is believed to be one of its kinds to acknowledge a combination of factors that determine the contribution of unorganized workers to social insurance. This study is an empirical investigation to prioritize the essential drivers of social insurance participation by low-income cohorts in the context of emerging countries. The present approach of employing fuzzy logic has also very limited use in social insurance literature yet.

P683 Economic impact of achieving mucosal healing on UC-related hospitalisations and work productivity in patients with moderately to severely active UC: A post-hoc analysis of risankizumab Phase 2b/3 trials

Abstract Background The value of endoscopic-histologic healing is incompletely understood, and definitions are variable. We assessed the clinical and economic value of achieving mucosal healing in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) by evaluating the relationship of histologic-endoscopic mucosal improvement (HEMI) and subsequent UC-related hospitalisation and work productivity, and associated costs in the United States (US); United Kingdom (UK); and France, Germany, Italy, and Spain (EU4). Methods Data from the risankizumab (RZB) INSPIRE induction (NCT03398148) and COMMAND maintenance (NCT03398135) studies were analysed. The number of UC-related hospitalisations was compared in patients who achieved HEMI or no HEMI using a chi-square test. The mean percent changes in Work Productivity and Activity Impairment (WPAI)-UC domains from baseline to induction week 12 and maintenance week 52 were compared in patients who achieved HEMI or no HEMI using analysis of variance test. Hospitalisation and work productivity differences during induction and maintenance were converted to annualised costs based on average earnings and hospitalisation cost inputs from US, UK, and EU4. Results UC-related hospitalisations were significantly lower in patients who achieved HEMI at induction week 12 than those who did not (0% vs 2.9%, p≤0.05). A similar result was found at maintenance week 52, but the difference was not significant. In patients who achieved HEMI vs no HEMI, a greater mean change in activity impairment, impairment while working, and overall work impairment from baseline to induction week 12 was observed (p≤0.001). Improvements were sustained at maintenance week 52 for patients who achieved HEMI vs those who did not. Estimated annualised cost benefits from maintenance data for UC-related hospitalisations in patients who achieved HEMI was $490 in the US, £29 in the UK, and €28–€58 in EU4. Greater monetised benefits accrued from work productivity gains, where estimated annualised cost savings were $5,085 in the US, £3,507 in the UK, and €3,240–€4,456 in EU4. Conclusion These findings demonstrate that patients treated with RZB who achieved HEMI had fewer UC-related hospitalisations and greater improvement in work productivity and ability to perform daily activities than those who did not, which results in moderate direct cost savings and substantial indirect cost savings to healthcare systems in the US, UK, and EU4.

Monte Carlo simulation-based financial risk identification for industrial estate as post-mining land usage in Indonesia

The issue of post-mining land usage is emerging in Indonesia due to the significant contribution of the mining industry to the country's economic development. Among the popular options for utilizing these lands is the establishment of industrial estates. The objective of this study is to investigate the complexities associated with identifying financial risks using an integrated framework to be implemented in industrial estates located on post-mining lands in Indonesia. The framework was constructed by combining traditional feasibility study methods with Monte Carlo simulation. The financial model was built using 31 input variables (assumptions) and 3 output variables (forecasts). The Monte Carlo simulation results revealed that there is an approximately 82.32% probability of the project's payback period being within 25 years, and a 94.23% probability of a positive net present value. Three input variables were found to contribute to 80% of the variation in average earnings. Additionally, five variables were identified as financial risk factors impacting net present value and discounted payback period. Out of the thirteen financial risk factors, ten were internal factors that require a management plan to mitigate them effectively. The framework contributed an emphasize on the importance of risk analysis as complementary analysis in a feasibility study.

Employment Preferences of Cardiologists in Türkiye: A Discrete Choice Experiment.

The homogeneous distribution of physicians is important for ensuring patients' access to health services. To encourage physicians to work in underserved areas, policymakers create incentives. Understanding physicians' employment preferences is essential when developing these incentive packages. This study aims to quantitatively reveal the preferences of cardiologists in Türkiye using a discrete choice experiment (DCE). A DCE questionnaire was distributed electronically to all cardiologists in Türkiye. It included 14 different pairs of hypothetical job offers based on seven parameters likely to influence their employment preferences. The data were analyzed using a conditional logit model. The coefficients (CEs) of conditional logistic regression and the willingness-to-accept (WTA) values were calculated. The analysis included 278 cardiologists. It revealed that the most influential parameter was location (CE: 2.86). To move to an undesirable location, the average participant would require an earnings increase of at least 123.3% relative to the average potential earnings of a cardiologist. Other parameters included availability of suitable facilities (CE: 1.07, WTA: 46.3%), harmony with co-workers (CE: 0.92, WTA: 39.61%), working conditions (CE: 0.68, WTA: 29.26%), and the number of night shifts (CE: 0.61, WTA: 26.34%). 'Location' emerged as the most important factor in the employment preferences of cardiologists in Türkiye. However, several other monetary and non-monetary factors were also influential, suggesting that policymakers should adopt a holistic approach when developing incentives for cardiologists.

IDENTIFYING BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE TO TAX CHANGE OF LABOR INCOME IN UKRAINE

Introduction. The National Revenue Strategy states that one of the directions for the further development of the national taxation system is the restoration of the progressive rates’ scale of personal income tax. Such a proposal looks appropriate and corresponds to the trends in the development of the labor market, the system of income generation in the national economy, and the demands of society. At the same time, the opportunistic reaction of taxpayers to the introduction of additional (increased) tax rates may lead to further evasion of labor income from taxation and, accordingly, an increase in tax risks of the state budget. Purpose of the article is to identificate of the behavioral response effect of the economic agents to tax change of labor income in Ukraine. Results. Changes in the taxation of labor income in 2015-2017 are characterized by the dynamics of such analytical indicators as the average effective tax rate and the tax wedge. The nominal growth of the wage fund in 2016 and 2017 is due to the following changes in taxation: an increase in the tax base and an increase in the average effective tax rate. In the short and medium term, reducing the tax burden did not have the expected positive effect, as predicted by the logic of Laffer's model. There is a significant increase in the share of wages at the average level, from 53.5% in 2012 to 63.8% in 2020. The share of labor income in the intervals from the lowest to the average earnings as of 2020 was more than 80%. The presence of an alternative system of income taxation with a significantly lower level of tax burden than the general system creates additional risks of effective implementation of personal income tax with a progressive scale of rates. Conclusions. The system of formation and distribution of labor income has undergone significant changes. The extremes of the income distribution (lowest and highest) were in relative gain compared to others. the introduction of a progressive scale of taxation rates exclusively for labor income in Ukraine does not have sufficient fiscal potential. In the case of a suboptimal political decision, with insufficient institutional capacity of control bodies and the presence of an alternative system of income taxation, there is a high probability of a significant increase in tax risks for state and local budgets.