Availability Of Irrigation Water Research Articles

Optimizing irrigation and nitrogen requirements for maize through empirical modeling in semi-arid environment.

Uncertainty in future availability of irrigation water and regulation of nutrient amount, management strategies for irrigation and nitrogen (N) are essential to maximize the crop productivity. To study the response of irrigation and N on water productivity and economic return of maize (Zea mays L.) grain yield, an experiment was conducted at Water Management Research Center, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2015 and 2016. Treatments included of full and three reduced levels of irrigation, with four rates of N fertilization. An empirical model was developed using observed grain yield for irrigation and N levels. Results from model and economic analysis showed that the N rates of 235, 229, 233, and 210kgha-1 were the most economical optimum N rates to achieve the economic yield of 9321, 8937, 5748, and 3493kgha-1 at 100%, 80%, 60%, and 40% irrigation levels, respectively. Economic optimum N rates were further explored to find out the optimum level of irrigation as a function of the total water applied using a quadratic equation. The results showed that 520mm is the optimum level of irrigation for the entire growing season in 2015 and 2016. Results also revealed that yield is not significantly affected by reducing the irrigation from full irrigation to 80% of full irrigation. It is concluded from the study that the relationship between irrigation and N can be used for efficient management of irrigation and N and to reduce the losses of N to avoid the economic loss and environmental hazards. The empirical equation can help farmers to optimize irrigation and N to obtain maximum economic return in semi-arid regions with sandy loam soils.

Tinjauan Debit Andalan Untuk Irigasi Di Kecamatan Sungai Tabuk Kabupaten Banjar

Adequate water availability in irrigation systems is an important factor in the success of irrigation agriculture, including Sungai Tabuk irrigation system which land is planted with rice paddy, fields rice paddy and crops. The availability of water in Kecamatan Tabuk River was calculated by dependable flow analysis using flow data from Mock method calculation. The model of rainfall-flow relationship with the monthly interval used was Mock Method, and 80% dependable flow was used to calculate the availability of the irrigation water. Based on the rainfall and evapotranspiration data (Mock method) in irrigation system of Sungai Tabuk area, the average flow per year of 5.758 m3 / sec obtained. With the highest flow occurred in March of 9.405m3 / sec and the lowest flow was in September at 1.616 m3 / sec. The 80% dependable flow was an average of 3.504 m3 / sec with the highest 80% of the highest dependable flow recorded in February of 7.37 m3 / sec and the lowest flow was in October which 80% flow was 0.24 m3 / sec. The calculation of irrigation water needed was based on KP-01. The calculation results showed that the average water demand was 2.690 m3 / sec with the beginning of planting on December I by using ordinary rice-ordinary rice planting pattern; while the average water demand for crops was 0.029 m3 / sec. From the analysis, the availability of irrigation water of Sungai Tabuk (average value of 3,504 m3 / sec) can fulfil the irrigation water requirement (average value of 2,690 + 0,029 = 2,719 m3 / second).

Decision support for open-air irrigation reservoir control

The availability of irrigation water greatly impacts on the profitability of the agricultural sector in South Africa and is largely determined by prudent decisions related to water release strategies at open-air irrigation reservoirs. The selection of such release strategies is difficult, since the objectives that should be pursued are not generally agreed upon and unpredictable weather patterns cause reservoir in flows to vary substantially between hydrological years. In this paper, a decision support system is proposed for the selection of suitable water release strategies. The system is based on a mathematical model which generates a probability distribution of the reservoir volume at the end of a hydrological year based on historical reservoir in flows. A release strategy is then computed which centres the expected hydrological year-end reservoir volume on some user-specified target value subject to user-specified weight factors representing demand satisfaction importance during the various decision periods of the hydrological year. The probability of water shortage for a given year-end transition volume may be determined by the decision support system, which allows for the computation of acceptable trade-off decisions between the fullment of current demand and the future repeatability of a release strategy. The system is implemented as a computerised concept demonstrator which is validated in a special case study involving Keerom Dam, an open-air reservoir in the Nuy agricultural district near Worcester in the South African Western Cape. The system's strategy suggestions are compared to historically employed strategies and the suggested strategies are found to fare better in maintaining reservoir storage levels whilst still fulfillling irrigation demands. Keywords: Decision support, reservoir releases

Willingness of farmers to pay for satellite-based irrigation advisory services: a southern Italy experience

AbstractThe aim of the current study was to define, optimize and customize IRRISAT, a fully operative satellite-based irrigation advisory service (IAS) provided in Campania Region, Italy, using a choice experiment to determine the preferences of farmers regarding the main characteristics and attributes of IRRISAT. Furthermore, willingness to pay for the main attributes of the services provided was estimated. The information on the amount of water required for irrigation provided by the IAS is sent out to farmers via SMS and email, as well as via the IRRISAT webpage. The study was related to the 2013–2014 irrigation season, when the service provided support to 669 farmers over an area of 55 ha. The study considered four attributes and levels of IRRISAT service: land management unit (scale of service); different levels of water saving (5, 10 and 30%) that could be achieved at different prices; annual fee paid by farmers (ranging between €6 and €10/ha/year); length of contract for the service supply, ranging from 1 to 3 years. Results showed that farmers’ preferences are influenced positively by scale (entire area of the farm instead of single fields) and duration of the service delivering contract. Concerning the duration of the contract, the most preferred option was the 3-year service. Finally, water saving was shown to affect farmers’ choices very little and thus it is probably less attractive for farmers probably due to the low price and to a relatively large availability of water for irrigation.

Constraints affecting summer vegetable cultivation

ABSTRACT The demand for summer vegetables continues to increase with many vegetables being cultivated in many countries all year round. Despite this, there is a decrease in cultivated area and production of vegetables in Iraq. The study was conducted in Al-Taleiaa district, Babylon Province, Iraq, to identify constraints faced in vegetables cultivation. One hundred and sixty vegetable farmers were randomly selected. A list of 4 categories affecting summer vegetable cultivation: production, financial, technical, and marketing, covering 35 constraints was prepared. About half of the vegetable farmers indicated that there was a high level of constraint impeding production. Competition from imported vegetables, soil salinity, water shortage, high cost of improved seed, poor extension service, and lack of knowledge of recommended cultivation practices were the most cited. The area cultivated with summer vegetable crops, number of cultivated summer vegetable crops, and seasonal income from summer vegetable crops were positively correlated with constraints. Vegetable producers have problems, and those problems need to be solved. It is necessary to use appropriate planning to overcome constraints facing vegetable producers. Restricting vegetable imports, availability of irrigation water, improved, affordable, seed, effective extension services, and adequate information about recommended cultivation practices are needed to improve vegetable production.

Impact of Gomal Zam Dam irrigation project on agriculture and welfare of farming community in southern districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan

This study investigated impact of Gomal Zam Dam (GZD) irrigation project on agriculture and welfare of farm households in Southern districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The study found immense effect of the project on increase in cultivated area and yield of wheat and gram crops, and diversification of traditional cropping pattern to commercialized farming with the addition of sugarcane and vegetables. The availability of irrigation water also induced cultivation of fodder crops which enabled farmers to add large ruminants to their livestock herds. All these changes resulted improvement in farmers’ welfare and development in project area. There are various post project needs which are equally important for long term success. The most important of these needs are training of farmers on water use efficiency; provision of technical assistance on using high yielding seed varieties, chemical fertilizers and pesticides; and provision of credit and subsidies for dairy farming.

Partitioning between evaporation and transpiration from Agrostis stolonifera L. during light and dark periods

Pressures on water availability for irrigation of turfgrasses continue in many parts of the United States as climate and weather patterns shift and populations increase. It is essential to understand underlying factors controlling water loss to more precisely predict irrigation requirements and develop new strategies for improving effective use of water. In this study, we investigate two key components of potential water loss from a bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) system that have not previously been examined in detail: 1) water loss in darkness, and 2) water loss through evaporation directly from the soil. The experiments were conducted in controlled environment chambers with intact cores from the field. An automated gravimetric system and soil moisture probes allowed precise measurements of water loss over ranges of vapor pressure deficits (VPD). The gravimetric and soil probe results indicated that substantial evapotranspiration occurred in darkness, at rates 40 to 60% of that in the light across VPDs. Simulations using field weather data from dry and humid environments indicated nighttime water loss rates would be expected to be 30 to 40% of that in the light. Using cores treated with a fast-acting, desiccating herbicide that eliminated transpiration but kept core resistances intact, evaporation directly from the soil surface was estimated to account for 40% of total water loss in the light and 60 to 70% in the dark. The results, collectively, indicated that water loss in darkness must be separately accounted for to accurately estimate daily evapotranspiration totals and irrigation requirements. Furthermore, because of the very high potential for evaporative water loss in the light and dark, efforts to improve water use efficiencies in the turfgrass system should include strategies that regulate both transpiration by the plant and evaporation from the soil surface.

Optimal cropping pattern design for a major distributary of Hirakud canal command in India

Gravity flow on field to field flooding basis is prevalent in most of the canal command areas in India. Furthermore, the canals being mostly unlined and at many sections ill maintained, enormous conveyance loss of water occurs causing dwindling crop production. Hirakud canal command area located in India is no exception to this predicament. Thus, augmentation of irrigation infrastructures vis-a-vis prudent crop planning is of paramount importance for increasing the overall efficiency of the canal system. This paper describes development of optimal crop planning in the Hirakud command area by considering different objectives of planning (scenarios) so that improvement in irrigation efficiency, in terms of water productivity could be feasible. Among various scenarios, the cropping pattern obtained under Scenario—II, i.e. to utilize the maximum area for cultivation, under the constraint of limiting water availability for each outlet was found to be feasible for optimal land and water utilization and generation of requisite employment. However, keeping in view the affinity of the farmers towards paddy (a heavy duty crop), Scenario—III i.e. to utilize the maximum area for cultivation with the constraints of limited irrigation water availability, and providing irrigation to heavy duty crops for at least one-third of the culturable command area of each outlet, can be adopted.

Hydro-climatic stress, shallow groundwater wells and coping in Ghana's White Volta basin

Debates of the nexus between water-related stresses and water availability for groundwater-dependent irrigation which comprises of non-conventional groundwater abstraction schemes is only recently emerging. The interaction between Seasonal Shallow Wells (SSWs), one of such indigenous abstractions scheme and groundwater recharge remains new to groundwater science and development. The SSWs supplement formal irrigation (e.g. reservoirs) and surface water for dry season agriculture in Ghana's White Volta Basin, yet links with the overall gradient of groundwater is unknown. Therefore, using the Water Evaluation And Planning (WEAP) model and qualitative techniques, the implications of groundwater recharge and surface runoff in their orientation to shallow wells is explored. Standardized precipitation index (SPI) from a regional downscale model for droughts and floods showed increased drought and flood influence on groundwater recharge and irrigation. Enhanced surface runoff water and climate change continuously reduced groundwater recharge by 2030, with decreased stream and water inflows. Irrigation water requirements of reservoirs were computed to be between 173% and 327% of normal reservoir water requirements, yet majority of dams did not meet these requirements especially during the dry season. The basin has history of dryness and exhibited uneven distribution of groundwater, yet recharged water of unsaturated soil moisture zones made water available to the SSWs. The SSWs were patronised mostly by women and farming households based on perceptions of limited cost, less sophistication and no formal regulatory measures. The paper therefore provides framework for establishing links between the mechanics of SSWs, and existing climatic and hydrologic conditions for informed groundwater development.

Performance of different cropping systems across precipitation gradient in North China Plain

Overuse of groundwater for irrigation under the current high yielding wheat-maize double cropping system has led to quick depletion of groundwater resources in North China Plain (NCP). Experimental work conducted for a relatively short period (several years) to explore water-saving cropping systems at limited sites offers useful, but limited insights regarding future sustainable cropping systems in NCP to balance productivity and groundwater usage. An understanding of the performance of various alternative cropping systems under the long-term inter-annual climate variability across the precipitation gradient in NCP is needed, but yet lacking. Our study provides a systematic assessment on productivity and environmental impact of 5 alternative cropping systems along a precipitation gradient across NCP, through combination of cropping systems modelling and scenario analysis. Our results show that the groundwater neutral cropping systems change from single summer maize, single spring maize, to wheat-maize double rotation from dry to wet areas across the precipitation gradient. Water restriction will inevitably lead to crop yield reduction (by 2–9 t/ha) and water saving depending on the choice of alternative cropping systems and location precipitation. Reduced water availability for irrigation will also reduce the amount of mineral nitrogen required and the associated N loss to the atmosphere and to the ground water. The reduction on N input was estimated to be 20–190 kg N/ha/year and N loss was 5–35 kg N/ha/year for the most productive cropping systems under rainfed conditions. A value for groundwater use is also estimated based on the extra grain yield produced with irrigation. The results provide the scientific basis for the design of future sustainable cropping systems, and future policies for water pricing and agricultural inputs (water and nitrogen).

Assessment of Suitable Areas for Home Gardens for Irrigation Potential, Water Availability, and Water-Lifting Technologies

The study was conducted in Lake Tana Basin of Ethiopia to assess potentially irrigable areas for home gardens, water availability, and feasibility of water-lifting technologies. A GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) technique was applied to access the potential of surface and groundwater sources for irrigation. The factors affecting irrigation practice were identified and feasibility of water-lifting technologies was evaluated. Pairwise method and expert’s opinion were used to assign weights for each factor. The result showed that about 345,000 ha and 135,000 ha of land were found suitable for irrigation from the surface and groundwater sources, respectively. The rivers could address about 1–1.2% of the irrigable land during dry season without water storage structure whereas groundwater could address about 2.2–2.4% of the irrigable land, both using conventional irrigation techniques. If the seven major dams within the basin were considered, surface water potential would be increased and satisfy about 21% of the irrigable land. If rainwater harvesting techniques were used, about 76% of the basin would be suitable for irrigation. The potential of surface and groundwater was evaluated with respect to water requirements of dominant crops in the region. On the other hand, rope pump and deep well piston hand pump were found with relatively the most (26%) and the least (9%) applicable low-cost water-lifting technologies in the basin.

Adaptation of global land use and management intensity to changes in climate and atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Land use contributes to environmental change, but is also influenced by such changes. Climate and atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2) levels’ changes alter agricultural crop productivity, plant water requirements and irrigation water availability. The global food system needs to respond and adapt to these changes, for example, by altering agricultural practices, including the crop types or intensity of management, or shifting cultivated areas within and between countries. As impacts and associated adaptation responses are spatially specific, understanding the land use adaptation to environmental changes requires crop productivity representations that capture spatial variations. The impact of variation in management practices, including fertiliser and irrigation rates, also needs to be considered. To date, models of global land use have selected agricultural expansion or intensification levels using relatively aggregate spatial representations, typically at a regional level, that are not able to characterise the details of these spatially differentiated responses. Here, we show results from a novel global modelling approach using more detailed biophysically derived yield responses to inputs with greater spatial specificity than previously possible. The approach couples a dynamic global vegetative model (LPJ‐GUESS) with a new land use and food system model (PLUMv2), with results benchmarked against historical land use change from 1970. Land use outcomes to 2100 were explored, suggesting that increased intensity of climate forcing reduces the inputs required for food production, due to the fertilisation and enhanced water use efficiency effects of elevated atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, but requiring substantial shifts in the global and local patterns of production. The results suggest that adaptation in the global agriculture and food system has substantial capacity to diminish the negative impacts and gain greater benefits from positive outcomes of climate change. Consequently, agricultural expansion and intensification may be lower than found in previous studies where spatial details and processes consideration were more constrained.

Assessing multi-level drivers of adaptation to climate variability and water insecurity in smallholder irrigation systems

Smallholder agriculturalists employ a range of strategies to adapt to climate variability. These adaptive strategies include decisions to plant different seed varieties, changes to the array of cultivated crops, and shifts in planting dates. Smallholder access to irrigation water is crucial to the adoption of such strategies, and uncertainty of water availability may prove to be a stimulating force in a smallholder’s decision to adjust their on-farm practices. Within smallholder irrigation systems, attributes at multiple levels influence water availability and collective action, and in the process play a role in adaptation: community-level governance institutions may influence trust in others and the ability to overcome appropriation and provisioning dilemmas, and, at the household-level, the availability of irrigation water and socioeconomic and demographic factors may influence farmer willingness to take on the risk of altering their on-farm practices. In this study we investigate smallholder adaptation in Kenya from multiple levels. Specifically, we identify the role of household- and community-level characteristics in shaping smallholder experimentation with different seed varieties. Standard ordinary least squares and logistic regressions are constructed to assess the influence of these interactions on smallholder adaptation. We further discuss the ability of smallholders to respond to poor water provisioning. Among the study’s findings is evidence that smallholders are more willing to employ adaptive measures if they have a limited capacity to irrigate.

Assessment of water quality from water harvesting using small farm reservoir for irrigation

This study aims to assess the quality of rainfall-runoff water harvesting using small farm reservoir (SFR) for irrigation. Water quality assessment criteria based on RI Government Regulation number 82 the year 2001 on Water Quality Management and Pollution Control, and FAO Irrigation Water Quality Guidelines 1985. The experiment was conducted in the dry land of Wonosari Village, Gondangrejo District, Karanganyar Regency. SFR size was 10 m x 3 m x 2 m. Water quality measurements are done every week, ten times. Water samples were taken at 6 points, namely: distance of 2.5 m, 5 m, and 7.5 m from the inlet, at depth 25 cm and 175 cm from surface water. In each sampling point replicated three times. Water quality parameters include dissolved oxygen (DO), Turbidity (TSS), water pH, Nitrate (NO3), and Phosphate. The results show that water harvesting that collected in SFR meets both standards quality used, so the water is feasible for agricultural irrigation. The average value of harvested water was DO 2.6 mg/l, TSS 62.7 mg/l, pH 6.6, P 5.3 mg/l and NO3 0.16 mg/l. Rainfall-runoff water harvesting using SFR prospectus for increasing save water availability for irrigation.

Penentuan Awal dan Durasi Musim Kemarau Menggunakan Fungsi Polynomial dengan Aplikasi Visual Basic for Applications (VBA)

Forecasting the occurrence of the onset of dry season and its length is important in determining the availability of water for irrigation, domestic and industrial uses. The length of dry season is used for reference in calculating water demand. Prediction of drought can be studied based on the rainfall patterns that have occurred. This is possible because there is a tendency that the rain will repeat a certain pattern at a certain time. The purpose of this study was to predict the onset of dry and rainy seasons as well as their length. Determination of the onset of dry season and its length was conducted using polynomial function of the cumulative amount of rain every single day based on the rain data. The research was conducted using rainfall data from Climate Station III in Serang from 1989 to 2010. The sum of daily rainfall could form a polynomial function. If the magnitude of daily rainfall in a certain period of time is less than the slope of the cumulative annual rainfall, then at that time the dry season is occurred. Determination of the dry season peak can be done by finding the maximum (extreme) point from the polynomial function by getting the second derivative which value is close or equal to zero. In average, the dry season occurred in Serang city started on the 132nd until 300th day. Deviation value for the onset of dry and rainy seasons were 23 and 38 days, respectively, with an average of length of 168 days. The average of R2 value for polynomial function was 0.9937.

Comparison of methods to determine the microbial quality of alternative irrigation waters

The availability of water for crop irrigation is decreasing due to droughts, population growth, and pollution. Implementation of the Food Safety and Modernization Act (FSMA) for irrigation water standards will discourage growers to use poor microbial quality water for produce crop irrigation. We evaluated the applicability of a novel concentrator method for assessment of microbiological quality of alternative waters including secondary-treated wastewater (STWW), roof-harvest rainwater (RHW), and creek water (CW) in comparison to the standard membrane filtration method. Water samples of 100 ml were filtered through a 0.45 μm membrane filter using a vacuum manifold or concentrated to ∼250 μl using the innovative concentrator. Then they were directly enumerated on specific agars, or enriched to monitor the populations of fecal bacterial indicators (Escherichia coli, enterococci, total and fecal coliforms) and bacterial pathogens (Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and E. coli O157:H7). Presumptive pathogens were confirmed by real-time quantitative PCR. In total, 25 samples of alternative water were analyzed including 7 STWW, 9 RHW, and 9 CW. No significant differences between both detection methods were observed when enumerating indicator bacterial populations and detecting the presence of pathogens in RHW and CW samples. Recovery of fecal coliforms in STWW samples by concentrator analysis was significantly lower than the membrane filtration technique. Results suggest that performance of the concentrator method is equivalent to membrane filtration method in determining the microbiological quality of CW and RHW waters; the type of the water sources may influence the accuracy and sensitivity of the concentrator analysis.

Irrigation Water Availability and Winter Wheat Abandonment in the North China Plain (NCP): Findings from a Case Study in Cangxian County of Hebei Province

The North China Plain (NCP) is the major winter wheat producing area in China. Abandonment of this crop has, however, become more and more prevalent in this region since the late 1990s. Although the underlying causes of this phenomenon remain little understood, irrigation water availability (IWA) has always been regarded as the key factor limiting winter wheat production on the NCP. The aim of this paper is to determine the role played by IWA in the abandonment of winter wheat, using evidence drawn from a case study in Cangxian County, Hebei Province. First-hand data were collected for this study from 350 households in 35 villages, using semistructured one-on-one questionnaires. Five types of irrigation water sources were defined and identified at the level of individual land plots: “ground and surface water”, “just groundwater”, “just rivers”, “just reservoirs”, and “no irrigation”. These levels correspond to a decreasing trend in the overall frequency of irrigation and thus provide a clear proxy indicator for IWA. The results from a series of multilevel multinomial models show that the higher the IWA, the less likely it is for a land plot to abandon winter wheat. Specifically, using “no irrigation” cases as a control group, the results show that land plots with more sources of irrigation water also tend to be characterized by greater IWA, including “ground and surface water” and “just groundwater”, and also have lower probabilities of abandoning winter wheat. In contrast, land plots with less IWA (less irrigation water sources), including “just reservoirs” and “just rivers”, are more likely to abandon winter wheat. The results also show that, in addition to IWA, soil quality and plot size at the plot level, as well as demographic characteristics, farm equipment, and land fragmentation at the household level and irrigation prices at the village level, all play additional significant roles in the cropping-system decisions made by farmers. A number of suggestions are made in this paper regarding policy implementation related to integrative water management and transferred water reallocation, in order to achieve the twin goals of water conservation and winter wheat production on the NCP.

Cropping pattern optimization considering uncertainty of water availability and water saving potential

In arid and semi-arid areas, the profitability of irrigated agriculture mainly depends on the availability of water resources and optimal cropping patterns of irrigation districts. In this study, an integrated agricultural cropping pattern optimization model was developed with considering the uncertainty of water availability and water saving potential in the future, aiming to maximize agricultural net benefit per unit of irrigation water. The available water which was based on the uncertainty of runoff was divided into five scenarios. The irrigation water-saving potential in the future was quantified by assuming an increase in the rate irrigation water-saving of 10% and 20%. The model was applied to the middle reaches of Heihe River basin, in Gansu Province, China. Results showed that if the irrigation water-saving rate was assumed to increase by 10%, then the net water-saving quantity would increase by 21.5-22.5 million m3 and the gross water-saving quantity would increase by 275.7-303.0 million m3. Similarly, if the irrigation water-saving rate increased by 20%, then the net water-saving quantity would increase by 43.0-45.1 million m3 and the gross water-saving quantity would increase by 331.7-383.2 million m3. If the agricultural cropping pattern was optimized, the optimal water and cultivated area allocation for maize would be greater than those for other crops. Under the premise that similar volume of irrigation water quantity was available in different scenarios, results showed differences in system benefit and net benefit per unit of irrigation water, for the distribution of available irrigation water was diverse in different irrigation districts. Keywords: cropping pattern optimization, irrigation water-saving potential, different scenarios, water availability, water use efficiency, particle swarm optimization (PSO) DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20181101.3658 Citation: Hao L N, Su X L, Singh V P. Cropping pattern optimization considering uncertainty of water availability and water saving potential. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(1): 178–186.

State and Performance of Water Retention Structures of Earthen Irrigation Dams in Northern Ghana

The study assessed performance and state of water retention infrastructure of eight (8) irrigation schemes in three (3) northern regions of Ghana. Data was collected using field observation and key informants’ interviews. The results indicated that the Tono and Bontanga earthen irrigation dams’ embankments had no structural defects whereas the embankments of Libga, Golinga, Karni, Vea, Doba and Sankana had some structural defects. Except Libga, all the spillways had no structural deficiencies and signs of risk of failure. All the reservoirs contained some amounts of sediments and weeds. The night storage reservoirs at Tono and Vea were weedy and silted up. The developed irrigable areas of Vea, Tono, Doba, Sankana and Karni schemes had average irrigation rates ranging from 12 - 76 % for the years 2010 - 2017. The water retention infrastructure of the irrigation schemes are recommended for maintenance and periodic repairs to ensure sustainable water retention and availability for crop irrigation.

Small Scale Irrigation Development

The country Ethiopia is situated in East Africa and hence agriculture is the base for peopleA¢Â€Â™s basic fulfillment and the country is abundant by water resource. Even if we have ample amount of water still now rain-fed agriculture is more practiced than irrigation water application. Irrigation can be defined as the application of water to the soil for increasing the moisture content which is important for plant root-growth and development to prevent stress that may cause reduce the amount of yield as well as the quality of the crops. There is positive relation between irrigation service and poverty alleviation. The availability of water for irrigation in community helps to improve food security. It increases the potential for producing more food consistency in drought prone and food insecure areas. Small scale irrigation farming has played a vital role in enabling food production by lowering the risk of crop failure and sustaining households and food security status. Extension works should be done to aware the importance of irrigation system and the involvement of the local farmers could be include when the system is going to be efficient. Government and other related policy formulation organizations should focused on decentralized system among the users. Irrigation is more effective if all users and non-users participate actually during the planning, implementing, maintaining, monitoring and evaluating works. The participation of the stakeholders is pillar during the management and sustainability of the irrigation structures