Autoregressive Latent Trajectory Model Research Articles

Longitudinal bidirectional relations between psychological maltreatment by teachers and psychosocial adjustment during early adolescence

This study examined three models (relationship-driven model, symptom-driven model and transactional model) testing the across-time bidirectional relations between psychological maltreatment by teachers and early adolescents' psychosocial adjustment (i.e., internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and academic achievement) during early adolescence. A total of 4169 Chinese early adolescents (Mage = 9.93 years, SD = 0.73, 54% males) completed assessments across five waves, every six months. Employing autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals (ALT-SR), the results revealed that adolescents’ internalizing problems and academic achievement were predicted by psychological maltreatment by teachers (supporting the relationship-driven model), whereas externalizing problems and psychological maltreatment by teachers were bidirectionally related (supporting the transactional model). Moreover, sex moderated the relations between psychological maltreatment by teachers and psychosocial adjustment. The finding of differential relations between psychological maltreatment by teachers and three components of psychosocial adjustment (i.e., internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and academic achievement) indicated that prevention and interventions should be tailored to different psychosocial adjustment difficulties.

Longitudinal Patterns of Online Activity and Social Feedback Are Associated with Current and Perceived Changes in Quality of Life in Adult Facebook Users

The present study explored how sharing verbal status updates on Facebook and receiving Likes, as a form of positive social feedback, correlate with current and perceived changes in Quality of Life (QoL). Utilizing the Facebook Graph API, we collected a longitudinal dataset comprising status updates and Likes received by 1577 adult Facebook users over a 12-month period. Two monthly indicators were calculated: the percentage of verbal status updates and the average number of Likes per post. Participants were administered a survey to assess current and perceived changes in QoL. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and the Auto-Regressive Latent Trajectory Model with Structured Residuals (ALT-SRs) were used to model longitudinal patterns emerging from the objective recordings of Facebook activity and explore their correlation with QoL measures. Findings indicated a positive correlation between the percentage of verbal status updated on Facebook and current QoL. Online positive social feedback, measured through received Likes, was associated with both current QoL and perceived improvements in QoL. Of note, perceived improvements in QoL correlated with an increase in received Likes over time. Results highlight the relevance of collecting and modeling longitudinal Facebook data for the investigation of the association between activity on social media and individual well-being.

Workplace digitalization and workload: changes and reciprocal relations across 3 years

This article reports the results of a 33-wave longitudinal study of changes in, and reciprocal relations between, workplace digitalization and workload. Monthly data were collected between April 2020 and December 2022 from n = 1661 employees in Germany. Based on theoretical models of workplace information and communication technology use, stress, and coping, we hypothesized both positive and negative within-person effects of digitalization on workload, and vice versa. Results of an autoregressive latent trajectory model with structured residuals (ALT-SR) showed on-average positive linear trajectories in digitalization, but not in workload over time. Moreover, higher digitalization was associated with subsequently higher levels of workload, and vice versa. This pattern of results suggests a dynamic, reciprocal process wherein positive deviations from one’s average trajectory of digitalization (workload) are associated with subsequently higher levels of workload (digitalization). We additionally find evidence for linear trends in these within-person processes, suggesting that the strength of the within-person effects of digitalization on workload, and of workload on digitalization, becomes more strongly positive over time. Practitioners developing work design interventions could focus on ways to reduce the detrimental impact of digitalization on increased workload, while simultaneously encouraging the potential of digitalization to help employees cope effectively with their workload.

Collateral effects of Coping Power on caregiver symptoms of depression and long-term changes in child behavior.

A large body of research demonstrates positive impacts of the Coping Power Program as a preventive intervention for youth behavioral outcomes, but potential collateral effects for caregivers is less known. The current study examined whether the youth-focused Coping Power Program can have a secondary impact on caregiver self-reported symptoms of depression and in turn result in longer-term impacts on child disruptive behavior problems including aggression, conduct problems and hyperactivity. Data from 360 youth/caregiver pairs across 8 waves of data (grades 4 through 10) were analyzed. We used two methodological approaches to (a) assess indirect effects in the presence of potential bidirectionality using timepoint-to-timepoint dynamic effects under Autoregressive Latent Trajectory modeling and (b) estimate scale scores in the presence of measurement non-invariance. Results showed that individually delivered Coping Power (ICP) produced greater direct effects on conduct problems and indirect effects on general externalizing and hyperactivity (through reductions in caregiver self-reported symptoms of depression), compared to group Coping Power (GCP). In comparison to GCP, ICP produced similar direct effects on reductions in caregiver depression. Child-focused prevention interventions can have an indirect impact on caregiver depression, which later shows improvements in longer-term reductions for child disruptive problems.

The emerging techno-microsystem and its longitudinal influences on Chinese young children’s behavior problems

Screen products are becoming increasingly indispensable in modern family life, yet their effects on developmental outcomes have remained unclear. This study examined the specific ways in which the techno-microsystem, consisting of children’s screen use and digital-related parenting, influenced behavior problems. A socially diverse sample of Chinese caregivers of 2- to 6-year-olds completed online questionnaires three times during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using an autoregressive latent trajectory model with structured residuals and a cross-lagged panel model with multiverse analysis, we evaluated the within-person and between-person effects of the techno-microsystem on behavior problems, respectively. Our results revealed: (i) active mediation predicted fewer behavior problems over time; (ii) restrictive mediation was longitudinally related to reduction in children’s screen use; and (iii) caregivers’ and children’s screen use covaried but were not predictive of behavior problems. These findings contribute to emerging theories of the techno-microsystem and carry practical implications for devising guidelines on family screen use.

Finding the Optimal Number of Persons (N) and Time Points (T) for Maximal Power in Dynamic Longitudinal Models Given a Fixed Budget

Planning longitudinal studies can be challenging as various design decisions need to be made. Often, researchers are in search for the optimal design that maximizes statistical power to test certain parameters of the employed model. We provide a user-friendly Shiny app OptDynMo available at https://shiny.psychologie.hu-berlin.de/optdynmo that helps to find the optimal number of persons (N) and the optimal number of time points (T) for which the power of the likelihood ratio test (LRT) for a model parameter is maximal given a fixed budget for conducting the study. The total cost of the study is computed from two components: the cost to include one person in the study and the cost for measuring one person at one time point. Currently supported models are the cross-lagged panel model (CLPM), factor CLPM, random intercepts cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM), stable trait autoregressive trait and state model (STARTS), latent curve model with structured residuals (LCM-SR), autoregressive latent trajectory model (ALT), and the latent change score model (LCS).

Explaining the Female Preponderance in Adolescent Depression—A Four-Wave Cohort Study

In the transition from childhood into adolescence, a female preponderance in depression emerges. Despite substantial empirical research to test theoretical propositions as to why this happens, our understanding is still limited. One explanation claims that girls become exposed to more stress (stress exposure model) whereas another proposes that girls become more vulnerable to the impact of stress (stress reactivity model) than boys when entering adolescence. Stressful life events (SLEs) and bullying victimization are established risk factors for adolescent depression. However, whether these factors contribute to the gender difference in depression is undetermined and thus investigated herein. Children (49.9% boys; n = 748) and parents from two birth cohorts in Trondheim, Norway, were followed biennially from ages 8 to 14 with clinical interviews about symptoms of depressive disorders and self-reports on SLEs. Teachers reported on bullying victimization. Prospective associations were investigated using an autoregressive latent trajectory model with structured residuals, examining within-person longitudinal associations while accounting for all time-invariant confounding effects. The number of depressive symptoms increased from ages 12 to 14 among girls. In the period before (ages 10 to 12), girls and boys were equally exposed to SLEs and bullying victimization. Increased stress (both SLEs and bullying victimization) at age 12 predicted increased depression at age 14 more strongly among girls than boys. Hence, increased impact—but not exposure—of SLEs and bullying victimization in girls may partly explain the emerging female preponderance in depression, in line with a stress reactivity model.

Dynamic patterns of blood lipids and DNA methylation in response to statin therapy

IntroductionStatins are lipid-lowering drugs and starting treatment has been associated with DNA methylation changes at genes related to lipid metabolism. However, the longitudinal pattern of how statins affect DNA methylation in relation to lipid levels has not been well investigated.MethodsWe conducted an epigenetic association study in a longitudinal Swedish twin sample in previously reported lipid-related CpGs (cg10177197, cg17901584 and cg27243685). First, we applied a mixed-effect model to assess the association between blood lipids (total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), total triglyceride (TG)) and DNA methylation. Then, we performed a piecewise latent linear–linear growth curve model (LGCM) to explore the long-term changing pattern of lipids and methylation in response to statin treatment. Finally, we used a bivariate autoregressive latent trajectory model with structured residuals (ALT-SR) to analyze the cross-lagged effects in different lipid-CpG pairs in statin users and non-users.ResultsWe replicated the associations between TC, LDL, HDL and DNA methylation level in cg17901584 and cg27243685 (P values ranged from 4.70E−12 to 1.84E−04). From the piecewise LGCM, we showed that TC and LDL significantly decreased in statin users before treatment started and then remained stable. For non-statin users, we only found a slightly significant decreasing trend for TC and TG. We observed a similar dynamic pattern for methylation levels at cg27243685 and cg17901584. Before statin initiation, cg27243685 showed a significantly increasing trend and cg17901584 a decreasing trend, but post-treatment, there were no additional changes. From the ALT-SR model, we found TG levels to be significantly associated with the DNA methylation level of cg27243685 at the next measurement in statin users (estimate = 0.383, 95% CI: 0.173, 0.594, P value < 0.001).ConclusionsLongitudinal blood lipid and DNA methylation levels change after statin treatment initiation, where the latter is mostly a response to alterations in lipid levels and not vice versa.

Within-person reciprocal associations between peer victimization and need for approval.

Prior research links need for approval (NFA; the extent to which self-worth is contingent on peer approval or disapproval) to critical developmental outcomes, but little is known about how NFA develops over time or within social contexts. To address this gap, the present study used a sophisticated analytic approach (autoregressive latent trajectory modeling with standardized residuals) to examine dynamic associations between one salient social experience-peer victimization-and two dimensions of NFA, conceptualized in terms of approach motivation (NFAapproach; enhanced self-worth based on peer approval) and avoidance motivation (NFAavoid; depleted self-worth based on peer disapproval). Following 636 youth (338 girls; Mage = 7.96 years at Wave 1; 66.7% White; 35.0% subsidized school lunch) from second to seventh grade, analyses revealed that peer victimization predicts subsequent increases in NFAavoid, which in turn predicts subsequent increases in victimization. Findings also revealed that although mean levels of NFAavoid decrease during childhood, increases or decreases in NFA become more entrenched. Thus, childhood peer victimization may disrupt normative decreases in NFAavoid and contribute to a cycle in which negative peer judgments increasingly foster low self-worth and further peer difficulties. Preventing this cycle may require encouraging peer-victimized youth to base their self-worth on internal standards rather than peer feedback while helping them develop positive relationships that promote self-worth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Equivalent approaches to dealing with unobserved heterogeneity in cross-lagged panel models? Investigating the benefits and drawbacks of the latent curve model with structured residuals and the random intercept cross-lagged panel model.

Panel models in structural equation modeling that combine static and dynamic components make it possible to investigate reciprocal relations while controlling for time-invariant unobserved heterogeneity. Recently, the latent curve model with structured residuals and the random-intercept cross-lagged panel model were suggested as "residual-level" versions of the more traditional autoregressive latent trajectory and dynamic panel models, respectively. Their main benefit is that they allow for a more straightforward interpretation of the trajectory factors. It is not widely known, however, that the residual-level models place potentially strong assumptions on the initial conditions-that is, the process that was occurring before the observation period began. If the process under investigation is not both stationary and at equilibrium then the residual-level models are not appropriate. They then do not control for all time-invariant unobserved heterogeneity and can result in biased cross-lagged and autoregressive estimates. I demonstrate this using the problem behavior of cigarette smoking among adolescents: Because the mean and variance of this process changes as a young person's smoking behavior develops, early stages of this process should not be examined using the residual-level models. This issue potentially exists for a wide variety of psychological and sociological subjects, essentially whenever the process under investigation is changing over the course of the observation period. This article discusses strategies to help researchers decide which model to use when, and compares some of their relative advantages and drawbacks. An amendment to the residual-level models is suggested in which the latent individual effects are allowed to covary with the initial residuals. This makes the residual-level models robust to violations of the assumptions surrounding the initial conditions, while retaining their other beneficial aspects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The reciprocal relationships between Chinese children's perception of interparental conflict, negative thinking, and depression symptoms: A cross-lagged study.

The present longitudinal study used the traditional cross-lagged panel model (CLPM) and autoregressive latent trajectory model with structured residuals (ALT-SR) to examine the relationships between perceived interparental conflict (IPC), negative thinking (NT), and depression symptoms in Chinese children. Changes in these three variables over time were also examined, as well as the trait and state aspects of the relationships between them. A sample of 516 third-grade primary students completed questionnaires about IPC, NT, and depression three times over a period of 1 year, at 6-month intervals. The CLPM findings indicated that, assuming that stability of each variable across time was controlled, Chinese children’s perception of IPC significantly affected their level of depression through the mediating path of NT. After taking trait factors into account, among all the significant autoregressive and cross-lagged paths originally found in the CLPM, only one third remained significant in the ALT-SR model. More specifically, the ALT-SR model, revealed a driving effect of children’s NT on perceived IPC and depression symptoms. The CLPM model although elucidated the interplay among three variables, the ALT-SR model showed little evidence of their interrelated growth across time. Taken together, these results indicate that children’s perceived IPC in the long term are a stable trait, with few state-level fluctuations, and is not a significant within-person predictor of subsequent children’s internalization problems. These perceptions appear to contribute more to children’s general psychological tendency than do changes over time. The research is the first to test the reciprocal relationships between Chinese children’s perceived IPC, NT, and depression symptoms. The findings demonstrate that previously proposed theories about the bidirectional relation between IPC and children’s social adjustment, to some extent, may reflect a correlation at a trait level. Put another way, it is IPC’s central tendency to be sensitive in the long term as a stable trait that is associated with their children’s general tendency to show well adjustment. The study contributes to our understanding of that extend previous results and have implications for complementary theoretical and practical interventions. The complementary techniques of CLPM and ALT-SR models offer different insights into children’s internalization problems, and hold promise for supporting the building of more comprehensive children’s developmental theories that acknowledge the interconnectedness of different domains of mental health.

Temporal Changes in Mindfulness Skills and Positive and Negative Affect and Their Interrelationships During Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Cancer Patients

ObjectivesWhile efficacy research on mindfulness-based interventions in cancer patients is available, research on possible mechanisms of change is lacking. The current study investigated general and week-to-week changes and interrelations in mindfulness and positive and negative affect in Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) for cancer patients.MethodsIn total, 163 cancer patients completed face-to-face or online MBCT. Mindfulness and positive and negative affect were measured weekly during the intervention. Autoregressive latent trajectory models were used to evaluate general and week-to-week effects.ResultsOverall, mindfulness and positive affect increased, and negative affect decreased during MBCT. Higher general levels of mindfulness were associated with higher general levels of positive affect. Regarding week-to-week effects, positive affect in weeks 3, 7, and 8 predicted an increase in mindfulness in the following week. Various general relations were observed between mindfulness and negative affect, showing that higher mindfulness was related to less negative affect. To the contrary, week-to-week effects showed higher mindfulness consistently predicted increased negative affect in the subsequent week.ConclusionsIn cancer patients, mindfulness appeared to be more robustly related to negative than to positive affect. Furthermore, mindfulness in one week was related to an increase of negative affect in the following week, possibly due to turning towards previously suppressed negative emotions. However, when focusing on the whole course from start to end, the increase of mindfulness was related to a decrease of negative affect, possibly due to acceptance of and exposure to negative emotions. Our findings reveal the complexity of mechanisms of MBCT and illustrate the necessity of sophisticated models with longitudinal measurements to truly elucidate these mechanisms.Trial RegistrationClinical Trials.gov: NCT02138513.

The codevelopment of reading and attention from middle childhood to early adolescence: A multivariate latent growth curve study.

Attention skills are strong cross-sectional predictors of reading comprehension from childhood through to adolescence. However, less is known about the developmental relations between these two domains across this period. This study examined the codevelopment of reading and attention in a community sample of 614 Australian school students (50% female). Reading and attention were assessed at ages 8, 10, 12, and 14. Results of univariate latent growth models demonstrated, on average, curvilinear trajectories for reading in which rapid growth across younger age spans decelerates as children reach adolescence. By contrast, attention skills remained relatively stable on average. Significant negative correlations were observed between the intercept and slope factors in separate reading (r = -.62) and attention models (r = -.39) suggesting compensatory growth patterns in which poorer performing students in both domains at age 8 have steeper trajectories than their higher performing peers. A comparison of a multivariate latent growth model and an autoregressive latent trajectory model with structured residuals (ALT-SR) examined the interrelatedness of development in reading and attention. Both between-individual and within-individual cross-domain parameters showed reading and attention to be positively related at Grade 3, indicating an association between better attention and higher reading achievement at age 8. However, there was little evidence for interrelated growth across domains in this sample. The results contribute to theories which explain whether and how multiple cognitive domains codevelop over a substantial period of childhood and early adolescence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Mediating Factors in Within-Person Developmental Cascades of Externalising, Internalising and ADHD Symptoms in Childhood

Previous studies have offered evidence for peer problems and academic achievement as mediators in developmental cascades from externalising to internalising problems, and from ADHD symptoms to both internalising and externalising problems. However, these mediators have not been found to fully account for these cascades, indicating that there may be additional mediators involved. This study investigated the role of harsh parenting and parental involvement alongside academic achievement and peer problems in mediating within-person developmental cascades from externalising to internalising problems and from ADHD symptoms to internalising and externalising problems using autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals. Models were fit for parent- and teacher-reports on children’s psychosocial development as measured by the Social Behaviour Questionnaire (SBQ) collected over ages 7, 9, and 11 in an ethnically diverse Swiss longitudinal cohort study (z-proso; N = 1387, 51% male). Results indicated that, when appropriately disentangling within- from between-person effects, none of the considered factors acted as significant mediators in longitudinal within-person relations between ADHD, internalising and externalising problems; hence, mediating mechanisms in developmental cascades remain to be identified.

Does emotion dysregulation mediate the association between ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems? A longitudinal within-person analysis in a large population-representative study.

Previous research has suggested that children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms commonly show emotion dysregulation difficulties. These difficulties may partly explain the strong tendency for internalizing problems such as anxiety and depression to co-occur with ADHD symptoms. However, no study has yet provided a longitudinal analysis of the within-person links between ADHD symptoms, emotion dysregulation, and internalizing problems necessary to examine this hypothesis from a developmental perspective. We used data from the age 3, 5, and 7 waves of the large UK population-representative Millennium Cohort Study (n = 9,619, 4,885 males) and fit gender-stratified autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals (ALT-SR) to disaggregate within- and between-person relations between ADHD symptom, emotion dysregulation, and internalizing problem symptoms. We found that emotion dysregulation significantly mediated the longitudinal within-person association between ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems. Results underline the promise of targeting emotion dysregulation as a means of preventing internalizing problems co-occurring with ADHD symptoms.

Long-term Effects of the Family Check-Up on Suicidality in Childhood and Adolescence: Integrative Data Analysis of Three Randomized Trials.

This study employed integrative data analysis techniques to examine the long-term effects of the family check-up (FCU) on changes in youth suicide risk using three randomized prevention trials, including one trial initiated in early childhood and two initiated in early adolescence. Data were harmonized across studies using moderated nonlinear factor analysis, and intervention effects were tested using an autoregressive latent trajectory model examining changes in suicide risk across long-term follow-up. Across trials, significant long-term effects of the FCU on reductions in suicide risk were observed, although differences between intervention and control group trajectories declined over time. No moderation of intervention effects was observed by youth gender or race/ethnicity or across samples. While results offer further support for the benefits of the FCU for suicide risk reduction, they also suggest that such effects may wane over time, underscoring the need for continued development of the FCU to enhance longer-term durability of effects on suicide-related behaviors.

The prospective relation between eating behaviors and BMI from middle childhood to adolescence: A 5-wave community study

Some eating behaviors are associated with increased risk of childhood obesity and are thus potential targets for obesity prevention. However, longitudinal research, especially on older children and adolescents, is needed to substantiate such a claim. Using data from a representative birth cohort of Norwegian children followed up biennially from age 6 to age 14 (analysis sample: n = 802), we tested if change in eating behaviors predicts increased body mass index (BMI) throughout childhood and adolescence, or if it is the other way around; higher BMI predicting more obesogenic eating. Eating behaviors were measured using the Children’s Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ) and BMI was measured objectively using digital scales. To separate within-person- and between-person effects and control for all time-invariant confounders (i.e., variables that do not change over the study period), we applied an autoregressive latent trajectory model with structured residuals (ALT-SR). Results showed that increases in obesogenic eating behaviors did not predict higher BMI at any age. It was the other way around: Increased BMI predicted increases in food responsiveness and emotional overeating at all time points, and enjoyment of food from 8 to 10 years and from 10 to 12 years. Furthermore, increased BMI predicted decreases in satiety responsiveness at all time points except from age 12 to age 14, as well as diminished emotional undereating from 12 to 14 years. One implication of our findings, if replicated, is that targeting obesogenic eating behaviors to change weight outcomes may be less effective in children older than age 6.

Analyzing dynamic change in children’s socioemotional development using the strengths and difficulties questionnaire in a large United Kingdom longitudinal study.

Many children who suffer from one mental health issue also suffer from at least one co-occurring disorder and a range of developmental psychopathology theories, including developmental cascade and network models, have been proposed to explain this widespread co-occurrence. Autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals (ALT-SR) and multilevel graphical vector autoregression (GVAR) are recently proposed complementary approaches that can help operationalize and test these theories and provide new insights into the reciprocal relations between multiple mental health domains to advance the understanding of the development of co-occurring mental health problems. This study uses ALT-SR and multilevel GVAR models to analyze the temporal, contemporaneous, and between-person relations between key dimensions of child mental health: emotional problems, peer problems, conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, and prosociality as measured by the parent-reported Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) in 17,478 children from the U.K. Millennium Cohort study at ages 3, 5, 7, 11, 14, and 17 years. Children's strengths and difficulties in different domains of psychosocial functioning were dynamically associated with each other over- and within-time. The ALT-SR highlighted that hyperactivity/inattention plays a central role in affecting other domains over developmental time, while the GVAR model highlighted comparably strong bidirectional relations between conduct problems and prosociality as well as between emotional problems and peer problems. This study confirms that mental health difficulties influence one another dynamically over time. The complementary techniques of ALT-SR and GVAR models offer different insights into co-occurring mental health problems and hold promise for supporting the building of more comprehensive developmental psychopathological theories that acknowledge the interconnectedness of different domains of mental health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Depressive and anxious symptoms and teacher-child dependency and conflict in early childhood

Internalizing symptoms, including depressive and anxious symptoms, are among the most common mental health concerns for young children. In middle childhood, children who experience more frequent internalizing symptoms tend to also experience more negative relationships with their teachers. Less is known about how children's depressive and anxious symptoms are associated with teacher-child relationship quality in early childhood. The few studies of these associations in early childhood present mixed findings on the directionality of these associations. To address these mixed findings in early childhood, the current study used autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals to examine four conceptual models of the concurrent and prospective associations between children's depressive and anxious symptoms and teacher-child dependency and conflict, including concurrent, child-driven, relationship-driven, and transactional models. Participants were 428 children (49.1% girls, Mage = 4.09 years, SD = 0.32) assessed in the fall and spring of preschool and kindergarten. Children's symptoms of depression and anxiety were related to the concurrent quality of teacher-child dependency and conflict, supporting the concurrent model. Children who experienced increased depressive and anxious symptoms across preschool and kindergarten, relative to their peers and their own average experiences, tended to also experience more dependent and conflictual relationships with their teachers.

Within-family relations of mental health problems across childhood and adolescence.

While transactional models suggest that parent and child mental health reciprocally influence one another over development, research has largely focused on parent-to-child effects. Additionally, it is not known whether observed associations hold when appropriate statistical tools are used to operationalise within-family dynamics. We investigated within-family mental health dynamics using autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals, stratified by child gender. Parental psychological distress was assessed using the Kessler (K6) scale, and children's internalising and externalising problems were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Both measures were administered at the age 3, 5, 7, 11, 14 and 17 waves of the Millennium Cohort Study (N = 10,746, ~50% female). Maternal psychological distress was positively associated with subsequent internalising and externalising problems for girls but only with internalising problems for boys. Paternal psychological distress was associated with boys' later internalising and externalising problems during early adolescence. Among boys, internalising problems were associated with later maternal psychological distress, while externalising problems were associated with later paternal psychological distress. Among girls, internalising problems were associated with subsequent paternal psychological distress, while externalising problems were associated with later maternal psychological distress. Finally, maternal and paternal psychological distress showed negative bidirectional associations in early childhood but positive associations in middle childhood and early adolescence. Findings support a transactional model of family mental health, with both child-to-parent and parent-to-child effects playing a role in the development of mental health difficulties. Mental health intervention efforts should, therefore, target the whole family system.