Australian Police Services Research Articles

Line managers and extreme work: a case study of human resource management in the police service

There are some professionals whose work is always prone to extremes; emergency service workers would fit in to this category. These extremes, however, have typically been short-term aspects of the role punctuated by long periods of normality. This article examines the experiences of line managers in an Australian police service facing pressures both internal and external to the organisation that make extreme working conditions the norm rather than the exception. We use data from forty-seven managers in The Police Service supported by illustrative diary study data to examine their experiences in times of significant change. Our results reveal extreme work resulting from human resource management system out of sync with changes in the expectations of society and media, technological advances in surveillance and social media access and use and an increase volume of ‘extreme’ weather events.

Work-related and nonwork stressors, PTSD, and psychological distress: Prevalence and attributable burden among Australian police and emergency services employees.

Police and emergency services personnel are at an increased risk of developing mental health issues. We sought to compare patterns of exposure to work-related and nonwork stressors and associations with posttraumatic stress symptoms and psychological distress among police and emergency services employees. A total of 14,868 employees from 33 ambulance, fire and rescue, police, and state emergency service agencies around Australia participated in a survey to assess the prevalence of exposure to work-related and nonwork stressors, and the prevalence of mental health conditions. Associations between work and nonwork stressors and mental health problems were estimated using logistic regression models and population attributable risk (PAR) percentages. Traumatic events experienced while working in the police and emergency services sector were the most frequently reported stressor (51%). Stressful events experienced at work in the sector were associated with significantly higher levels of suspected posttraumatic stress symptoms (odds ratio = 4.5, PAR = 65%) and high psychological distress (odds ratio = 2.5, PAR = 40%) compared to stressors experienced away from the sector. Stressors experienced at work are a risk factor for developing posttraumatic stress symptoms and distress in the sector. Organizations should have comprehensive policies and programs to help prevent the development of mental health problems and to support personnel who develop mental health problems. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The Influence of Stigma Perceptions on Employees' Claims Experiences for Psychological Injuries: Re-Examination of a Cross-Sectional Survey among Australian Police and Emergency Service Personnel.

While a large body of research assessed the contribution of mental health stigma on disclosure, treatment seeking, and recovery, limited research exists seeking to identify the relative contribution of stigma beliefs on workers’ compensation claims for psychological injury. Survey data of ambulance, fire and rescue, police, and state emergency service personnel (N = 1855, aged 45–54 years, 66.4% male) was re-examined to assesses the unique and combined associations of self-, personal, and workplace stigma with workers’ compensation claims experiences and recovery. Participants responded to self-report stigma items (predictor variables), perceived stress, fairness, and support perceptions of going through the claims process and its impact on recovery (outcome variables). Multiple regression analyses revealed that the combined stigma dimensions predicted about one fifth of the variance of claims and recovery perceptions. Organisational commitment beliefs and the self-stigma dimension of experiences with others were the two most important, albeit weak, unique predictors across outcomes. Given the small but consistent influences of organisational commitment beliefs and the self-stigma dimension of experiences with others, it seems warranted to apply workplace interventions that are looking to establish positive workplace contact and a supportive organisational culture to alleviate negative effects attributable to mental health stigma.

Mental health and wellbeing of Australian police and emergency services employees

Answering the Call, the Australian National Police and Emergency Services Mental Health and Wellbeing Study, surveyed 14,868 Australian ambulance, fire and rescue, police, and state emergency service employees. Emergency services personnel had lower rates of mental wellbeing and higher rates of psychological distress and probable PTSD than the general adult population. Overall 30% had low wellbeing, 21% had high and 9% had very high psychological distress, and 10% had probable PTSD. An estimated 5% had suicidal ideation and 2% had a suicide plan in the past 12 months, while 16% binge drink at least weekly. Only one in five of those with very high psychological distress or probable PTSD felt they received adequate support for their condition. These findings highlight the risk of mental health conditions associated with work in the emergency services sector.

Prevalence and predictors of suicidal thoughts and behaviours among Australian police and emergency services employees.

This study presents rates of suicide thoughts and behaviours of police and emergency services personnel around Australia. In addition, it examines personal (i.e. mental health, substance use) and working environment risk and protective factors. A stratified random sample of personnel from 33 Australian emergency services organisations were invited to participate in a mental health and wellbeing survey. In total, 14,868 Australian ambulance, fire and rescue, police and state emergency services employees participated and self-reported any suicidal thoughts, plans and/or attempts in the 12 months prior to the survey or at any stage in their life. Logistic regressions assessed factors associated with suicidal thoughts and behaviours. Employees reported notably higher rates of suicidal thoughts and plans than the general Australian adult population, but not attempts. Male, single/divorced, non-heterosexual or longer-serving employees reported higher rates of suicidal thoughts and behaviours across each sector. Perceptions of stigma regarding mental health conditions from others in the workplace, negative impact of work on one's private life and low meaning of work were associated with suicidal thoughts, while bullying significantly differentiated who planned and attempted suicide from those who reported suicidal thoughts only. Higher resilience and social support were associated with lower suicidal thoughts, while intermittent explosive anger and illegal drug use were associated with higher rates of suicidal thoughts. Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms significantly differentiated who planned suicide, while misuse of prescription drugs and psychological distress differentiated who attempted suicide from those who only reported suicidal thoughts. Amid inherently stressful occupations, it is important that workplaces function in a way that supports their personnel. Access to mental health services should be promoted and readily available to personnel.

Supplemental Material for Work-Related and Nonwork Stressors, PTSD, and Psychological Distress: Prevalence and Attributable Burden Among Australian Police and Emergency Services Employees

Supplemental Material for Work-Related and Nonwork Stressors, PTSD, and Psychological Distress: Prevalence and Attributable Burden Among Australian Police and Emergency Services Employees

Evidence for the Impact of Organisational Resources Versus Job Characteristics in Assessments of Occupational Stress Over Time

Considerable evidence demonstrates the importance of both job demands and job resources in the prediction of employee health and motivational outcomes. However, scant empirical evidence explains how broader organisational factors can also have an impact on these outcomes. Utilising the job demands‐resources (JD‐R) model as a theoretical explanation of occupational stress, we examined the impact of employees’ alignment with their organisation's strategic objectives (strategic alignment) in predicting long‐term occupational health outcomes. The sample consisted of 1,601 police officers employed in one Australian police service, who completed two self‐report surveys over 12 months. Results of the study indicated that strategic alignment was the only resource to reduce psychological strain, and to increase work engagement over time. Job demands were not found to be significantly associated with either psychological strain or work engagement over time. There was also no evidence of the moderating effects of job resources on health and motivational outcomes. The theoretical and practical implications of the inclusion of strategic alignment as an organisational resource are discussed.

Why Diversity May Not Mend Adversity — An Australian Commentary on Multicultural Affirmative Action Strategies in Law Enforcement

As Australia becomes progressively more diverse, there are repeated calls for the Australian police service to mirror the multicultural complexion of society. These concerns have often culminated in affirmative action policies in other Western nations, some of which endeavour to artificially increase the numbers of minorities in law enforcement organisations. Though well intentioned, the ideas that underpin such policies often overlook the various reasons for minimal minority interest in a policing career. They also incorrectly assume that an increase in police diversity will automatically purge discrimination from the service and enhance community relations. This comment contends that a structurally accountable and regulated police service, combined with recruiting practices aimed at employing service-oriented, non-discriminatory officers regardless of ethnicity, engenders an inclusive, accepting and transparent police culture capable of dealing effectively with ethnically diverse populations.

Management development: developing ethical corporate culture in three organisations

PurposeThe purpose of this investigation was to look at three organisations (a naval shore establishment, a police academy, and a small, family‐owned engineering firm) and see to what extent they had developed a culture that was both ethically and socially responsive.Design/methodology/approachThe investigation was carried out by speaking to key players, observing their organisations and by detailed analysis of the documents which related to this study.FindingsThe findings revealed that the Navy has a set of values (HHCIL) which overlap with the more general values of the Department of Defence (imPLICIT). The Western Australian Police Service has an approach to developing an ethical corporate culture which includes the establishment of a dedicated unit, and running discussion groups and seminars. The family‐owned and operated engineering business relies more heavily on an indirect approach based on following traditional family values.Research limitations/implicationsPursuing the topic of what makes a just war, particularly in today's political climate, was one possibility for further research. There were limitations to the study; these were mainly due to issues of confidentiality and in broaching sensitive topics to both Navy and Police senior officers.Originality/valueThree conditions were essential for developing an ethical corporate culture: CEOs were ultimately responsible for the ethicality of their organisations; formal training programs were necessary to impart the required knowledge; and formal mechanisms were essential to facilitate the reporting of any behaviour of organisational members that was deemed to be wrong, unethical or illegal.

Careers of offenders with an intellectual disability: the probabilities of rearrest

BACKGROUND This paper reports results from a total population of persons with intellectual disabilities (ID) in Western Australia arrested for the first time since 1 April 1984. It is part of a longitudinal study that 'tracked' offenders with ID through the criminal justice system over an 11-year period to compare their experiences at each stage of the justice process with a sample of the general offending population. The research draws on an analysis of the Western Australian Police Services Apprehension records and the Disability Services Commission database. METHOD The data collected provided the opportunity to calculate base rates of the probability of rearrest of offenders with ID in comparison to mainstream offenders. RESULTS The study found that people with ID had a significantly higher rate of rearrest than general population offenders and the study canvasses some possible reasons for this finding.

People With an Intellectual Disability in the Prisons

This article reports results from a total population of persons with an intellectual disability in Western Australia arrested on or after April 1, 1984. It is part of a longitudinal study which 'tracked' offenders with intellectual disability through the criminal justice system over an 11-year period to compare their experiences at each stage of the justice process with a sample of general population offenders. The research draws on an analysis of the Western Australian Police Services Apprehension records and the Disability Services Commission database. The data presented here examine imprisonment rates and profiles of prisoners with intellectual disability compared to other offenders. The study found that over the period of the study more than one third of all individuals with an intellectual disability who were charged with a criminal offence were given a custodial sentence, compared with only 13% of the non-disabled arrestees. In addition, 16% of individuals with intellectual disability arrested for the first time were sentenced to custody compared to 7% of general population offenders.

Budgetary control of Australian police services and the new governance of security

Through the example of the Australian police services, this article examines the impact of the New Public Management tools on strengthening administrative accountability. Governments, faced with increasing social demand for security, have launched into political auctions on the themes of police activity and social control. Relationships between the authorities and the police administrators have been redefined, mainly through more rigorous budgetary control. After a rapid examination of the administrative context that led to the implementation of programme budgeting — the main government tool in this area — the article examines the tensions that resulted from its introduction. Particular emphasis is placed upon the limitations of such a tool in the field of security, which is undergoing profound reconfiguration as a result of increasingly frequent cooperation between public, private and hybrid actors.

Policing the police service

Recently public interest in the police service in Australia has emanated from extensive media coverage and from rising public accountability expectations. In light of this, the current paper explores how far the accounting, accountability and performance management systems within “new public management” ideals have evolved within the Australian police services. More specifically, it explores the accountability framework, information for performance evaluation and public sector reform implications for an Australian state police service as a whole, and an individual police station, in particular. The findings suggest that the police service in Australia has a rigid accountability structure and is continuously subject to performance evaluations. Further, it has been found that there is considerable rise of “new public management” ideals within the police services in Australia. It was apparent that the reforms in the police service had a dual purpose – legitimizing the police service to the electorate and ordinary citizens, while encouraging efficiencies of resource use.

The new face of police governance in Australia

Over the past twenty years, Australian police services have been exposed to the scrutiny of royal commissions, which have uncovered a disturbing pattern of corruption and inefficiency. The media have also introduced the public to the most unpalatable aspects of police culture. At the same time, many liberal societies have experienced a political and social paradigm shift: the welfare state has become discredited as the preferred form of government and has been replaced by a more streamlined model, which has in turn fostered a new form of governance. The polymorphous concept of governance encompasses various meanings, which are all concerned with the capacity of the state to govern society. The effectiveness and efficiency of traditional forms of governance relying on hierarchical public structures have been questioned, and alternatives relying on market forces, policy networks and local communities are being advocated.1 In terms of process, this new governance is characterised by the adoption of managerialist reforms, which are characterised by a belief in the superiority of the market over the state, the introduction of competition between government departments and agencies, a simultaneous process of centralisation and decentralisation, and the fragmentation of public services providers.2 Because of public preoccupations with such issues as corruption and a tainted organisational culture, the implications of managerial reforms for police functions and the governance of law enforcement have largely been neglected. I will argue that, far from being trivial, these changes have far-reaching repercussions. They redefine how Australian communities are being policed, discarding the legal obligation to enforce the law and maintain the peace for the public good, and replacing it with a more pragmatic approach, which consists of managing the risks posed by the ‘dangerous classes’. This trend is reinforced by the politics of law and order that are being played in Australia by all parties during election campaigns. Before we can see how the new discourse of police managerialism has lead to substantial reforms in the fields of budget allocation, performance evaluation and contractualisation, it is essential to contextualise these changes at the international and national levels, and to highlight their political and social significance.

Crime Control in the 21st Century

This article speculates on what society's response to crime will look like in the year 2020. Following a brief discussion of the anticipated criminal environment, and trends which will influence the delivery of public services, the article will suggest some of the forms which future institutions of crime control are likely to take. In addition to the transformation of Australian police services, the paper will discuss private and non-profit institutions of crime control, and how these will interact with public institutions. The paper will conclude with a discussion of trade-offs between personal safety and individual freedom, and how these will shift over time. It predicts greater societal investment in personal safety at the expense of individual freedom.

Policing in a Multicultural Society: A Changing Society, a Changing Police Culture?

For many years Australia has been known for its all-white policy, but in recent years the government has undertaken a series of radical measures to improve ‘access' and ‘equity’ of all groups living in Australia — a process which has involved improving the ability of government bodies to understand the intricate relations which arise within a multicultural society so that they can better attend to the different values and needs of the various groups. In this paper, the authors look at an innovative, proactive programme entitled ‘Policing in a multicultural community’ set up by the Western Australian Police Service, the Department of Multicultural Affairs, the Ethnic Communities Council and Edith Cowan University, in coordination with the Northern Suburbs Migrant Resource Centre. The programme is based on the premise that ‘only through understanding people's needs, expectations and fears can compatibility between police and society be achieved’. The findings of this comprehensive evaluation showed that by fostering a sense of partnership it is possible to achieve significant impacts in terms of promoting an understanding of cultural diversity among police officers, and overcoming issues which in the past have prevented ethnic minority groups from accessing police services.

Creating Customer-Centred Organisations: New Business Planning Tools for Australian Police Services

This paper calls for Australian police services to articulate a strategic declaration or vision of how they would operate (and be viewed by customers) in a genuinely customer-focused environment. Despite claims to be ‘customer focused’, Australian police services have conceptualised customers as a unity rather than an amalgam of discrete groups. Furthermore, police services have not specified the desirable elements of a customer-focused organisation beyond modest corporate statements, nor formulated rigorous indicators of success along the road to achieving customer service excellence. Against the backdrop of a philosophical discussion about the reinvention of communities as customers in corporate planning strategies, some of the broad-level business planning techniques that Australian police services should apply, it is argued, before claiming to be truly ‘customer focused’ are identified. These new planning tools — defining customer segments, competitive positioning and ‘blue-sky’ planning — are introduced as useful techniques to move police organisations from their current position to a desired future position as customer-centred organisations.

Book Review: A Culture of Corruption: Changing an Australian Police Service

Book Review: A Culture of Corruption: Changing an Australian Police Service

Developing a Profile of Alcohol Consumption Patterns of Police Officers in a Large Scale Sample of an Australian Police Service

The current study aimed to examine the prevalence of alcohol use within a large sample (n = 4,193) of Australian police offers. Prevalence and at risk behaviour was measured through the use of a self-report survey containing the AUDIT and standard frequency and quantity questions. Results indicated that although police did not report drinking with high frequency when compared to the national statistics, they did drink in far greater quantities. Further, both males and females in the police sample reported high rates of binge drinking. The 18- to 25-year old age group reported the highest levels of frequency and quantity of alcohol consumed. Twenty-five percent of officers reported having drunk whilst on duty. An alarming proportion of the sample (30%) scored in the ‘at risk of harmful consumption’ category on the AUDIT while a further 3% scored in the ‘alcohol dependant’ category. Examination of demographic variables revealed that males, 18- to 35-year-olds, those divorced or separated, constables, operational personnel and officers who have served between 4 and 10 years were the groups most likely to fall in the risk category on the AUDIT. This was similar for the alcohol-dependant category except that males and females were equally likely to fall in this category. In conclusion, a significant number of police officers displayed at risk alcohol consumption behaviour; in comparison to earlier studies this proportion is not decreasing. Interventions and education programmes are needed within the police workplace, particularly in regard to the dangers of binge drinking for females and youth.

New management techniques and restructuring for accountability in Australian police organisations

This paper examines the implementation of new management techniques in Australian police services since the late 1980s, within an international context of demands for greater public sector efficiencies and accountability. Through an examination of police organisations in Queensland and New South Wales, the paper demonstrates that the impetus for organisational change, particularly in the context of employment practices has largely been driven by revelations of entrenched corruption and police misconduct. As a result, organisational goals of accountability and cultural change have been the critical influences on the restructuring agenda. The paper argues that management strategies should be suited to the specific organisational settings within which they are being applied. It suggests that the process of restructuring and the emphasis on changing employment practices have led to greater potential for conflict between management and police officers.