Australian Cities Research Articles

Darwin: Towards the sustainability of the Larrikin of Australian capital cities

Cities, as entities, are inevitably exposed to a range of the internal and external factors that shape their urban development and planning. As complex adaptive systems, cities possess different capabilities and opportunities for the re-configuration, transformation and learning from these disturbances. This city profile explores these processes using Darwin, the Northern Territory's capital and Australia's eighth-largest city as an example. The city profile is situated within Urban Resilience Theory. It unpacks the nuanced way geographic factors and spatial isolation; natural disasters, World War 2 bombing, border security threats, natural resource extraction, and tourism have shaped Darwin's urban development. Understanding these nuances and their spatiotemporal dynamics coalesces into the identified system susceptibilities and opportunities for an adaptive and sustainable development presented in this paper. The city's unique urban governance, successive reconstruction, socio-spatial dynamics, history, and challenges make it an excellent case study of city growth dynamics and resilience within the Asian-Pacific region. The profile highlights Darwin's regional planning and the (historic) production of urban space, along with climate change risks and adaptation, increasingly inaccessible housing and unaffordability, economic growth challenges and demographic dynamics.

Delivering Transit-Oriented Development in lower order centres: the case of Epping town centre, Sydney

ABSTRACT The urban renewal of middle-ring suburban centres has emerged as a central component of strategic planning in Australia. Often based on the design principles of Transit Oriented Development, the renewal of middle-ring centres is viewed as a panacea for many of the challenges facing Australian cities. However, implementation remains a challenge. Using Epping town centre, located in northwest Sydney, as an example, we explore a series of planning, governance and delivery challenges which emerge to inhibit renewal. Our focus is on; first, the challenges of fluid and uncertain planning identities in delivering renewal; second, the role of ad hoc and politically expedient transport infrastructure delivery in framing renewal; and, thirdly, the role of the private sector (especially foreign investors and developers) in delivering urban change. This analysis provides important insights for the planning and renewal of lower order middle-ring centres across Australia cities.

Overcoming the barriers to Transit-Oriented Development

ABSTRACT Despite the long-term application of Transit Oriented Development (TOD) policy in Australian cities full implementation has proven a challenge. Indeed, in the Western Australian state capital of Perth, residential densities across most train station precincts remain typically low. Moreover, the use of public transport has declined over the last decade despite repeated attempts to boost patronage. In response to this situation, this paper reports on a suite of semi-structured interviews conducted with relevant experts to elicit knowledge concerning (1) the barriers to delivering successful TOD; and (2) potential strategies government planners can employ to mitigate these barriers to create successful TODs. The paper concludes that the success of station precincts must prioritise diverse, creative, and genuinely appealing places and travel options over transport planning standardisation and fixed practices.

“Streets of menace”: Constructing and deconstructing youth “gangs” in two Australian cities

This paper explores the symbolic and instrumental impacts associated with labelling particular groups of young people as perpetrators of organised “gang” activity. Using case studies from two Australian cities, we point primarily to the constitutive and damaging nature of much media and public discourse about youth gang crime and show how young offenders’ disadvantage and disenfranchisement is rendered largely invisible or immaterial to understanding the causes and solutions to such problems. In an era of “fake news”, social media “echo chambers”, civil conflict, mass international migration/forced diasporas, as well as the reassertion of strong sovereign borders, we ask: how might one de-escalate the “monstering” of young people whose identity (and presence and place in society) is known primarily, if not exclusively, through the “noise” and visibility of their offending?

Diversification of Physical Activities: An Exploration of Provision Characteristics of Holistic Movement Practices in a Large Australian City.

Holistic movement practices (HMPs) are an emerging category of physical activity, contributing to the diversification of physical activity opportunities. Purposefully incorporating not only physical but also mental, social, and/or spiritual elements, HMPs have received limited research attention with respect to participation parameters. The purpose of this study was to begin to map HMPs’ participation potential by exploring the provision features of HMPs in Melbourne. Data were collected via internet searches, with a focus on events offered. Event features, including type, cost, duration, venue address, and target groups, were recorded. Associated neighbourhood characteristics were also explored by linking venue locations to selected census information. Provision was documented for Yoga and Pilates in central Melbourne (1011 events), for Tai Chi and Qigong (323 events), and for a range of smaller HMPs (149 events) across Greater Melbourne. Results indicated a wide range in provision features. Affinities with the holistic nature of HMPs were noticeable in venue choices and neighbourhood socio-demographics. Mention of specific target groups was infrequent. Results are discussed in light of implications for uptake. HMPs exemplify the increasing diversity of physical activity opportunities in modern-day societies. Further research to elucidate their place in the landscape of physical activities is warranted.

Digital divide: Mobile internet speeds in the Pacific

This article outlines mobile internet speeds experienced by 15 smartphone users in the Pacific region. It presents new quantitative data collected over a six-month-long period. The data were collected in order to provide a comparison of places and to look for trends over time. The research was adjusted for confounding factors like weather and building type. The findings indicate substantial differences between the internet speeds and reliability experienced in Australian cities compared to the readings in Pacific Island locations. Over the six-month-long period, there were no substantial improvements or decreases in internet speeds at any of the included locations. This finding takes into account changes in weather, time of day and surroundings. As expected, clear skies and outdoor settings were positively associated with faster internet speeds, compared to rainy periods and indoor readings in the same geographical areas.

Migrant residential concentrations and socio-economic disadvantage in two Australian gateway cities

This article explores the relationship of residential concentrations of non-Anglophone migrants with socio-economic disadvantage at the suburb (SA2) level. We look at two main Australian gateway cities, Sydney and Melbourne. We use the ‘person-counts’ of the latest available (2016) Australian Census data, matching them with the socio-economic data provided by the Australian Bureau of Statistics ‘socio-economic indexes for areas’ (SEIFA). Our analysis shows that despite decades of careful filtering of migrants for skills and language, socio-economic disadvantage in migrant concentrations persists in the main gateway cities, being more pronounced in Melbourne than in Sydney. The article employs an original quantitative analysis in order to advance the understanding of relationship between ethnicity, socio-economic position and residential location. We seek to contribute to the ongoing scholarly and policy debate about migrant concentration areas in large immigrant-receiving cities.

The Initial Timing and Burden of Viral Gastrointestinal Infections in Australian Infants: A Birth Cohort Study.

The timing and nature of initial infections by potentially vaccine-preventable gastrointestinal viruses (group-F adenoviruses, classic human astrovirus, norovirus I/II, and sapovirus I/II/IV/V) was investigated in a community-based birth cohort. Weekly stool samples were collected from 158 children aged <2 years in an Australian subtropical city. Median age at initial infection was lowest for norovirus II (13.8 months) followed by sapovirus (14.3 months) and classic human astrovirus (17.6 months), and was >24 months for the remaining viruses. Norovirus II and sapovirus were most often associated with acute gastroenteritis symptoms (57% and 44%, respectively). Overall, healthcare was sought for 45% of symptomatic initial infections, which varied between 17% for norovirus I to 55% for norovirus II. Age at initial infection was lower when participants were exposed to other children. Norovirus II and sapovirus were the most important pathogens in this cohort, providing further evidence for them being priority targets for vaccine development.

A Case Study on Reliability, Water Demand and Economic Analysis of Rainwater Harvesting in Australian Capital Cities

This paper presents reliability, water demand and economic analysis of rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems for eight Australian capital cities (Adelaide, Brisbane, Canberra, Darwin, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney). A Python-based tool is developed based on a daily water balance modelling approach, which uses input data such as daily rainfall, roof area, overflow losses, daily water demand and first flush. Ten different tank volumes are considered (1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 50, 75 and 100 m3). It is found that for a large roof area and tank size, the reliability of RWH systems for toilet and laundry use is high, in the range of 80–100%. However, the reliability for irrigation use is highly variable across all the locations. For combined use, Adelaide shows the smallest reliability (38–49%), while Hobart demonstrates the highest reliability (61–77%). Furthermore, economic analysis demonstrates that in a few cases, benefit–cost ratio values greater than one can be achieved for the RWH systems. The findings of this study will help the Australian Federal Government to enhance RWH policy, programs and subsidy levels considering climate-sensitive inputs in the respective cities.

Costing recommended (healthy) and current (unhealthy) diets in urban and inner regional areas of Australia using remote price collection methods.

To compare the cost and affordability of two fortnightly diets (representing the national guidelines and current consumption) across areas containing Australia's major supermarkets. The Healthy Diets Australian Standardised Affordability and Pricing protocol was used. Price data were collected online and via phone calls in fifty-one urban and inner regional locations across Australia. Not applicable. Healthy diets were consistently less expensive than current (unhealthy) diets. Nonetheless, healthy diets would cost 25-26 % of the disposable income for low-income households and 30-31 % of the poverty line. Differences in gross incomes (the most available income metric which overrepresents disposable income) drove national variations in diet affordability (from 14 % of the median gross household incomes in the Australian Capital Territory and Northern Territory to 25 % of the median gross household income in Tasmania). In Australian cities and regional areas with major supermarkets, access to affordable diets remains problematic for families receiving low incomes. These findings are likely to be exacerbated in outer regional and remote areas (not included in this study). To make healthy diets economically appealing, policies that reduce the (absolute and relative) costs of healthy diets and increase the incomes of Australians living in poverty are required.

What are the key factors affecting smart city transformation readiness? Evidence from Australian cities

Transformation into a prosperous smart city has become an aspiration for many local governments across the globe. Despite its growing importance, smart city transformation readiness is still an understudied area of research. In order to bridge this knowledge gap, this paper identifies the key factors affecting smart city transformation readiness in the context of Australian cities. The empirical investigation conducted in this study places Australian local government areas (n = 180) under the smart city microscope to quantitatively evaluate, through a multiple regression analysis, the key factors affecting their urban smartness levels—a proxy used for smart city transformation readiness. The findings disclose that the following factors determine about two-thirds (65%) of the smart city transformation readiness: (a) Close distance to domestic airport; (b) Low remoteness value; (c) High population density; (d) Low unemployment level, and; (e) High labour productivity. The study findings and generated insights inform urban policymakers, managers and planners on their policy, planning and practice decisions concerning smart cities.

QUANTIFYING THE IMPACT OF URBAN INFILL ON THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND EFFECT – A CASE STUDY FOR AN ALTERNATIVE MEDIUM DENSITY MODEL

Abstract. Urban Heat Islands (UHIs) impact the quality of life in many urban centres. Metropolitan areas of Australian cities and urbanised regional centres, in particular, show vulnerability towards UHIs due to challenging climatic conditions and the model of greater subdivision of established properties whereby backyards and mature trees are replaced with more residential dwellings and sealed areas. The measurements for the UHI mitigation, such as imposing reforestation, employing sustainable and medium density housing build form typology must be quantified. Simulation-based identification and mitigation of UHIs can be used for planning decisions. There are several advantages to use simulations. For instance, alternative subdivision design, building design and the placement of trees and other measures is only required in the digital twin. Experimenting with the digital twin saves resources and maximises the outcome by being able to quantify the heat reduction. The aim of this work is to quantify the impact of the current urban infill methods on UHI. We focus on an area that has gone through a process of re-subdivision that is bounded by roads within Perth, Western Australia. For the same area we propose an alternative design with an urban infill model based on a medium density housing guidelines with an improved green space allocation. While the current model shows significant effects of UHIs we could mitigate those effects in the alternative proposed model. In our simulation the hottest surfaces are roads with a temperature of approximately 45 °C at 2PM in the afternoon. In the current model close to 100% of the road surfaces reach this temperature. In contrast, in the alternative model only 45% of all road surfaces reach this temperature, significantly reducing the impact of UHI for pedestrian walking close by to those roads. At 2PM, the most frequent temperature of all surfaces for the current model is around 44 °C while the alternative’s model the most frequent temperature is approximately 28 °C – a difference of 16 °C.

999Impact of Heatwaves on use of health services (GP and Emergency department visits)

Abstract Background Heatwaves are associated with increases in mortality and morbidity (mostly hospitalisations). However, evidence regarding heatwave impacts on the use of frontline health-services such as general practitioner (GP) consultations and emergency department (ED) services is limited. This study quantified the impact of heatwaves on the use of GP and ED services in Adelaide. Methods Data on GP services (2011-2016) from the Medicare Benefits Schedule and ED visits (2013-2018) were obtained from the Australian Bureau of Statistics and the Department of Health, respectively. Heatwaves were defined using Excess Heat Factor. Using time-stratified case-crossover models, we modelled heatwave-severity (low, severe/extreme) against the use of GP and ED services in the warm-season (October-March). Effect estimates are reported as relative risks (RRs). Results Total GP visits decreased during low-intensity heatwaves and increased during severe/extreme heatwaves (RR 1.14; 95%CI: 1.13-1.15). The highest increases during severe/extreme heatwaves were observed for respiratory (RR 1.36; 95%CI: 1.27-1.45) and psychiatric services. While ED visits decreased overall during low-intensity and severe/extreme heatwaves, those due to heat-light disorders (RR 4.23; 95%CI: 2.98-6.00), volume depletion, and respiratory diseases increased during severe/extreme heatwaves. Conclusions There were significant increases in the use of GP and specific ED services during heatwaves in Adelaide. Further research is needed to identify the intrinsic and extrinsic vulnerability factors contributing to these increases in Adelaide and other Australian cities. Key messages Impacts of heatwaves extend beyond mortality to include frontline health-services (GP/EDs) that are already challenged. Evidence presented may assist policymakers for resource allocation and healthcare workforce capacity building.

1391Is outdoor artificial light at night confounding spatial epidemiological studies on greenspace and health?

Abstract Background There is a growing body of evidence that exposure to greenspace is good for our health: spending time in greenspace can improve depressive symptoms, obesity, and sleep problems, and reduce the risk of breast and prostate cancer. We also know that exposure to outdoor artificial light at night (O-ALAN) is associated with increased risk of breast and prostate cancer, and can worsen depression, obesity and sleep problems. As both greenspace exposure and O-ALAN have been implicated in the same health outcomes, we aimed to establish if O-ALAN was itself correlated with greenspace, potentially confounding spatial epidemiological studies of greenspace and health outcomes (and vice versa). Methods We investigated the correlation between greenspace diversity (Shannon diversity index of National Vegetation Information System’s vegetation classes within 3 km radius buffer zones), and night-time light data (NOAA/NCEI Nighttime Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite Day/Night Band 2015 Annual Composite product), in Australian major cities. Results We identified an inverse correlation between O-ALAN and greenspace diversity. Conclusions The finding makes intuitive sense because more developed areas are likely to have fewer trees and more artificial light, which is consistent with our hypothesis that that O-ALAN could be confounding studies of the relationship between greenspace and health. Without considering the potential confounding effects of O-ALAN, public health-driven initiatives such as greenspace conservation and restoration in urban environments may not be optimised for health benefits. Key messages Spatial epidemiological studies of greenspace exposure and health should include O-ALAN as a potential confounder (and vice versa).

Simulating an invasion: unsealed water storage (rainwater tanks) and urban block design facilitate the spread of the dengue fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, in Brisbane, Australia.

Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus) was once highly prevalent across eastern Australia, resulting in epidemics of dengue fever. Drought conditions have led to a rapid rise in semi-permanent, urban water storage containers called rainwater tanks known to be critical larval habitat for the species. The presence of these larval habitats has increased the risk of establishment of highly urbanised, invasive mosquito vectors such as Ae. aegypti. Here we use a spatially explicit network model to examine the role that unsealed rainwater tanks may play in population connectivity of an Ae. aegypti invasion in suburbs of Brisbane, a major Australian city. We characterise movement between rainwater tanks as a diffusion-like process, limited by a maximum distance of movement, average life expectancy, and a probability that Ae. aegypti will cross wide open spaces such as roads. The simulation model was run against a number of scenarios that examined population spread through the rainwater tank network based on non-compliance rates of tanks (unsealed or sealed) and road grids. We show that Ae. aegypti tank infestation and population spread was greatest in areas of high tank density and road lengths were shortest e.g. cul-de-sacs. Rainwater tank non-compliance rates of over 30% show increased connectivity when compared to less than 10%, suggesting rainwater tanks non-compliance should be maintained under this level to minimize the spread of an invading Ae. aegypti population. These results presented as risk maps of Ae. aegypti spread across Brisbane, can assist health and government authorities on where to optimally target rainwater tank surveillance and educational activities.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10530-021-02619-z.

Trusted institutions: Expertise, gender, and legitimacy on planning panels

AbstractExperts are increasingly replacing elected representatives in the planning of Australian cities and regions. Following concerns about delays and corruption, expert decision‐making has been promoted as an important mechanism to restore trust in the planning process. Others have expressed concerns about the loss of democracy entailed in this shift, but this is not the whole story. The nature of expertise is itself significant, and we examine the composition of these new decision‐making bodies. We focus on Local Planning Panels, the latest suite of expert planning bodies introduced in NSW, the state that has led the shift from elected to expert decision makers. Our analysis reveals that expert panels are highly gendered, which may work against the legitimacy and effectiveness of these increasingly influential planning bodies.

Social and spatial variation in heatwave-related emergency department visits in Australia

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Heatwaves are extreme weather events that cause more urgent medical care than any other hazard in Australia. Heatwave impacts vary between populations and locations and empirical evidence concerning vulnerable places and people at a local level is critical for effective policy, planning, and interventions, especially in a warming climate. This study aimed to examine heatwave-related morbidity in Australia (using emergency department (ED) presentations) at a small-area level and identify susceptibility by neighbourhood characteristics. METHODS: ED presentations data for eight Australian cities from 2013-2018 during the warm-season (October- March) were extracted from a national database. In each city, we examined the association of heatwave severity (defined using Excess Heat Factor) with ED visits at the Statistical Areas 2 geographical unit using a time-stratified case-crossover approach. Effect modification by neighbourhood characteristics were examined and city-level estimates were pooled using random-effects meta-analyses. RESULTS:A total of 23,233,374 all-cause ED presentations were included in the analysis. Pooled ED relative risk estimates indicate that ED visits increased by 2.9% (95%CI: 1.5-4.2%) and 3.4% (95%CI: 1.2-5.5%) during low-intensity and severe/extreme heatwaves, respectively. There were 67,974 excess ED presentations during heatwaves with 82% of these occurring during low-intensity events which are more frequent than severe/extreme heatwaves. The effects varied substantially by city with the highest number of excess ED presentations observed in Adelaide (28,198) and Sydney (19,899). Heat-related conditions such as dehydration and heat exhaustion/stroke were significantly greater during heatwaves and the effect increased from low-intensity to severe/extreme heatwaves. Analysis of neighbourhood characteristics on heatwave-related ED presentations revealed greater health impacts for areas with high social vulnerability e.g., household composition, language and culture, and housing quality. CONCLUSIONS:Overall, ED presentations are sensitive to heatwaves across all severity classes and the effects are stronger for individuals with certain health conditions and neighbourhood contexts. KEYWORDS: Heatwaves, integrated data, vulnerability, excess heat factor

Is outdoor artificial light at night confounding studies on green space and health?

BACKGROUND AND AIM: There is a growing body of evidence that exposure to green space, particularly biodiverse green space, is good for our health: spending time in green space can improve depressive symptoms, obesity, and sleep problems, and reduce the risk of breast and prostate cancer. We also know that exposure to light at night, particularly urban light pollution, is bad for you: it increases the risk of breast and prostate cancer, and can worsen depression, obesity and sleep problems. As both green space exposure and outdoor artificial light at night (O-ALAN) have been implicated in the same health outcomes, we aimed to establish if O-ALAN was itself correlated with green space, potentially confounding studies of green space and health outcomes (and vice versa). METHODS: We used Australian major cities as a case study, and investigated the correlation between green space diversity (Shannon diversity index of National Vegetation Information System’s vegetation classes within 3 km radius buffer zones), and night-time light data (NOAA/NCEI Nighttime Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite Day/Night Band 2015 Annual Composite product). RESULTS:Our results show a clear inverse correlation between O-ALAN and green space diversity for major Australian cities (P 0.001, Adjusted R-squared = 0.325, n = 139). The finding makes intuitive sense because more developed areas are likely to have fewer trees and more artificial light, which is consistent with our hypothesis that that O-ALAN could be confounding studies of the relationship between green space and health. CONCLUSIONS:Both green space (ideally including a measure of diversity) and O-ALAN should be included in spatial epidemiological models examining environmental determinants of health. Without considering the potential confounding effects of O-ALAN, public health-driven initiatives such as green space conservation and restoration in urban environments may not be optimised for health benefits. KEYWORDS: Light pollution, Green space, Built environment

Social enterprises and community wellbeing in regional Australia

This article reflects on a research project that has mapped the ways in which social enterprises in regional Australian cities produce wellbeing for their employees. The majority of enterprises in this study offer supported work opportunities to people with a disability while also running commercially viable enterprises delivering goods and services to regional communities. These enterprises demonstrate the challenges and the potential for organisations in regional settings to contribute in meaningful ways, not only to the wellbeing of the workers they support, but to the wellbeing of the broader community. This article considers how social enterprises are understood to be contributing to regional communities and situates them as key actors in a community economy that contributes to wider community wellbeing as distinct from individual wellbeing.

A Trust-Based Model for the Adoption of Smart City Technologies in Australian Regional Cities

This paper explores the role of stakeholders’ trust in the adoption of smart city technologies, leading to the identification of the critical determinants for adopting smart city technologies in Australian regional cities. A comprehensive review of the related literature has been conducted. Such a review leads to the development of a trust-based research model for investigating the importance of trust in technology and its adoption. This model is then tested and validated with the use of a structural equation modeling technique on the survey data collected from ICT professionals in Australian regional cities. The study results show that perceived usefulness, perceived external pressure and perceived information security influence trust in smart city technologies. Further analysis highlights the significant relationship between stakeholders’ trust and their intention to adopt smart city technologies. This study is unique, as it is one of a few studies that focus on exploring stakeholders’ trust in the adoption of smart city technologies from the perspective of ICT professionals in Australia. The study results can be used by the government agencies to formulate appropriate policies to enhance the use of smart city technologies in the active pursuit of smart city development in Australia.