Attack Livestock Research Articles

Evaluation of the social-economic impacts of hyena attacks on humans and livestock in the Nyang’whale district of Tanzania

BackgroundThe spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) is one of the carnivore species that frequently comes into conflict with humans. These conflicts are attributed to their scavenging foraging behaviour and their ability to occupy habitats close to human settlements. In Tanzania, the Geita region has recently experienced an increase in livestock and human attacks by hyenas. However, there are limited studies examining the extent of these attacks and the associated social-economic impacts. Thus, this study evaluated the social impacts and economic losses due to spotted hyena attacks in the Nyang’whale district in the Geita region.Materials and methodsThe study was carried out in three villages in the Nyang’whale district, namely Wavu, which is close to the Mienze Forest Reserve; Bukungu, which is far from the forest but surrounded by many hills; and Izunya, which is far from the forest and the hills. Data collection was done through household surveys, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. A Chi-square test assessed the association between hyena fear and daily activities across villages. Poisson regression compared the number of livestock attacked by hyenas by village and species. Linear regression analysis compared financial losses due to livestock attacks and reductions in working time due to hyena fear across villages.ResultsThere was a significant variation in the frequency of livestock and human attacks between the villages. The frequency of livestock attacks was lower in Bukungu village, but human attacks were highest in this village. The Wavu village, which is close to the forest, had the highest livestock number and attacks, but no human attacks were reported. The hyena attacks had created fear, which had changed the daily routines of the villagers. The village with the most human attacks reported a high rate of school dropouts, while the one with the most livestock attacks reported a reduction in sleeping time at night to watch livestock. Economic losses due to livestock attacks averaged $300.5 per household per year, while losses due to reduced working time were equivalent to $285.6 per household per year.ConclusionGiven that villages with a large number of livestock experienced more livestock attacks and fewer human attacks, this suggests that hyenas may target humans when their food resources are limited. Therefore, conducting further studies to assess the hyena population and the availability of their natural prey is crucial for formulating effective intervention strategies. Additionally, villagers should be educated on ways to control human and livestock attacks based on the animals’ ecology and behaviour.

Remarkable records of jaguars and Andean bears in northwestern Ecuador: Implications for human-wildlife conflicts

Jaguar populations (Panthera onca) on the Ecuadorian coast are critically endangered, with only a few dozen individuals remaining in the region. In some areas, no records have been documented for decades. Between November 2023 and January 2024, independent camera trap monitoring in northwestern Ecuador yielded evidence of the presence of a jaguar, marking a significant recovery after seven years of absence in Manduriacu and at least 15 years in Junín. The jaguar was observed moving through an area of approximately 25 km, traversing forested and human-altered zones. Furthermore, additional evidence from the Ecominga Foundation and the Cielo Verde community indicated the occurrence of livestock attacks, which aligns with the typical predatory patterns observed in jaguar behavior. The attack site was located approximately 8 km from where the jaguar was initially recorded, suggesting that both events refer to the same individual. In response, local authorities inspected the area and organized community workshops. Furthermore, an Andean bear was recorded in Manduriacu during the same sampling period, confirming the co-occurrence of both species in the area. The documented movement of this jaguar, along with the presence of other species, underscores the imperative need to continue research and conservation initiatives in the region. These initiatives will ensure the protection and coexistence of wildlife and human populations in this highly biodiverse region.

The canine DNA recovery project: preventing livestock injuries and fatalities

A new initiative aims to improve the accuracy and reliability of identifying dogs involved in livestock attacks using a novel DNA collection and analysis approach.

Development of a qPCR assay for the quantification of canine autosomal DNA recovered from livestock attacks

The absence of a standardised method to quantify canine DNA recovered from livestock attacks leaves forensic providers without an important quality control step to help support their decision making. Typically used to normalise the amount of DNA for STR amplification, modern forensic DNA quantification approaches use qPCR of target genes and can also include an Internal Positive Controls (IPC) to determine the presence of PCR inhibitors. The co-amplification of livestock DNA alongside canine DNA has meant that previously developed qPCR methods are not suitable for use so a standardised approach is needed. This research describes the development of a Taq-man multiplex qPCR assay that simultaneously quantifies the autosomal MC1R and Y-specific SRY gene to determine the concentration of canine DNA recovered from attacked livestock. Data suggests that the method is robust and reproducible with no significant difference in the standard curves produced from multiple runs or from different DNA standards derived from different canines. Assay sensitivity of between 15 and 31 pg is consistent with other forensic quantification assays and also in line with the sensitivity of the two tested canine STR kits, Canine Genotype 2.1 Kit and CaDNAP Panels 1 and 2. The assay is highly specific to canines when tested against 163 different dogs representing 33 different breeds and no cross-amplification of non-target species’ DNA was observed even from livestock DNA tested at 31.25 ng/µl. This strongly suggests that any DNA detected on evidence collected from attacked livestock is canine. The assay also shows robust tolerance to common livestock inhibitors continuing to amplify when inhibitor-spiked DNA samples were tested. Both mixed and inhibited DNA samples underwent STR typing using two canine forensic STR kits with data showing the Canine Genotype 2.1 Kit displaying pronounced cross-amplification of livestock DNA and and/or extensive PCR inhibition leading to the complete loss of amplification when using this kit. Conversely the CaDNAP Panels 1 and 2 showed little cross-amplification of livestock DNA and improved inhibitor tolerance suggesting that this approach was better suited for the analysis of livestock attack samples. Findings are discussed and the impact of the observations on future work in this area are explored.

Spatio-temporal human snow leopard (Panthera uncia) conflicts and mitigation measures in Baltistan - free-livestock grazing pastoral areas

Apex predators are essential for maintaining ecosystem balance by controlling biotic communities. The spatio-temporal grazing of livestock in pastoral areas can pose threats to endangered carnivores and their prey resulting in resource competition, conflicts and increased disease transmission. Our research aimed to assess the spatio-temporal distribution of snow leopards and livestock determine factors causing snow leopard-livestock conflicts identify seasonal conflict zones through public claims and interviews and evaluate conservation benefits and challenges. In this study, camera traps were used in 20 villages of Baltistan from November to April resulting in 720 snow leopard sightings and 8277 livestock events. Snow leopards preyed on 195 livestock in the 2022–2023 period resulting in an estimated loss of $225,004.51 USD including sheeps, goats, cows and yaks.We utilized the Generalized Linear Regression Model to examine snow leopard attacks finding that the timing of attacks was not significant. Proximity to predator-proofed corrals, traditional corrals, bite marks and distance to the nearest village or shepherd huts were positively correlated with attacks, while small stock body size was not significant. Through 110 public interviews we discovered that awareness campaigns and avoidance strategies successfully mitigated human-snow leopard conflicts. In conclusion, our results found that livestock attacks occur in pastures during both day and night with the size and sex of the livestock affecting the likelihood of attacks. Snow leopard attacks were linked to increased grazing and poorly constructed corrals. Snow leopards targeted vulnerable areas of their prey including the neck, mouth, ears and anal region. Compensation claims and field visits were used to identify conflict areas and public perception. In the future research should prioritize the use of camera traps to study prey and snow leopard density, grazing effects, food habits using genetic tools and sex determination.

Livestock attacks and new technology

Livestock attacks and new technology

Human‐wildlife conflict at high altitude: A case from Gaurishankar conservation area, Nepal

AbstractHuman–wildlife conflict studies of high‐altitude areas are rare due to budget constraints and the challenging nature of research in these remote environments. This study investigates the prevalence and increasing trend of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in the mountainous Gaurishankar Conservation Area (GCA) of Nepal, with a specific focus on leopard (Panthera pardus) and Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus laniger). The study analyzes a decade of HWC reports and identifies goats as the livestock most targeted by leopards. The Dolakha district of GCA received the highest number of reports, highlighting the need for mitigation measures in the area. In GCA, livestock attacks accounted for 85% of compensation, with the remaining 15% for human injuries. We estimate that the number of reported wildlife attacks grew on average by 33% per year, with an additional increase of 57 reports per year following the implementation of a new compensation policy during BS 2076 (2019 AD). While bear attacks showed no significant change post‐rule alteration, leopard attack reports surged from 1 to 60 annually, indicating improved compensation may have resulted in increased leopard‐attack reporting rates. The findings emphasize the economic impact of HWC on local communities and suggest strategies such as increasing prey populations, promoting community education and awareness, enhancing alternative livelihood options, developing community‐based insurance programs, and implementing secure enclosures (corrals) to minimize conflicts and foster harmonious coexistence. This research addresses a knowledge gap in HWC in high‐altitude conservation areas like the GCA, providing valuable insights for conservation stakeholders and contributing to biodiversity conservation and the well‐being of humans and wildlife.

Wolf-related damage in livestock management: Long-term data analyses in Saxony, Germany

The increasing number of wolves (Canis lupus) in Central Europe has increased wolf-livestock conflicts. Several studies have analysed the impact of herding styles and the possible influencing factors. However, short analysis periods and focusing on specific influencing factors can lead to ambiguous or contradictory results. This study used long-term data from 2000 to 2019 in the federal state of Saxony (Germany) to evaluate a broad range of potential influencing factors, thereby identifying critical factors that considerably impact the likelihood of livestock attacks or the extent of livestock damage due to wolves. Generalised linear models were used for modelling. Our analyses showed that small livestock were more at risk of wolf attacks when (1) the percentage of woodland in comparison to agricultural land was low, (2) wolf territories were in proximity, and (3) the abundance of red deer was low. In addition, wolf attacks were associated with more livestock damage when (1) sika and red deer were abundant, (2) livestock were held in small herds, and the number of farms was low, (3) protective measures were missing, and (4) packs held juvenile wolves. The information on fencing style, independent of the occurrence of wolf attacks, would significantly improve future research and may help minimise conflicts between wolves, livestock, and humans.

Attitudes and Perceptions of Local Communities towards Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in the Sudd Wetlands, South Sudan.

Conflicts between human populations and Nile crocodiles are widespread with crocodiles posing significant threats to fisherfolk and riverine communities across r-Saharan Africa. Hundreds of deadly attacks take place annually, and mortality rates may range from 50% to 100%. Attitudes and perceptions towards crocodiles were studied using structured questionnaires among fisherfolk along the River Nile and the Sudd wetlands in South Sudan. Local communities used crocodiles for their meat and skin/leather trades. The meat is regarded to enhance longevity, sexual potency, and protection against witchcraft. Crocodiles are perceived as a main threat to lives and livelihoods as they restrict people's freedom of movement along water bodies, attack livestock and humans, and devastate fishing equipment. To assess whether responses were influenced by the intensity of crocodile threats, published data on fatal crocodile attacks on humans and livestock were analysed using Generalised Linear Models (GLMs). This analysis indicated a direct link between the number of crocodile attacks and human attitudes. Crocodiles were generally feared and hated, and there was the agreement of the need to destroy breeding habitats. However, some attitudes were complex and nuanced as highlighted by the agreement of local communities on the need to destroy Nile Crocodile breeding habitats on the one hand and the need to establish crocodile sanctuaries as the the preferred strategy to mitigate risks and conflict on the other hand. There is a need for the creation of a crocodile sanctuary in the Sudd wetlands to minimise the risks of illegal hunting and to buffer the increasing pressure on crocodiles due to human population growth and economic upturn after the civil war.

ASPERGILLOSIS IN BROILER CHICKEN IN TUNJUK VILLAGE, TABANAN DISTRICT, TABANAN REGENCY, BALI

In the development of broiler farming in Indonesia, it is necessary to be aware of diseases that often attack livestock, namely Aspergillosis fungal infection. This case study aims to confirm the diagnosis in the death of 30-day-old broiler chickens of male sex who experienced clinical symptoms of lethargy, nasal discharge, shortness of breath, swollen eyelids, and difficulty eating for 3 days so that they were separated from the rest of the chicken population obtained at one of the farms located in Tunjuk Village, Tabanan District, Tabanan Regency, Bali. Examination of case animals included signaling, anamnesis, epidemiological data, clinical symptoms, anatomical pathology and histopathology examination, bacteriology and mycology examination, and parasitology examination. The results of the anatomical pathology examination showed congestion in the brain, petechie in the ventriculus, hemorrhage in the intestines, hemorrhage in the lungs with white nodules and white nodules in the kidneys. Histopathological examination found septa hyphae and conidiophore. In the mycological examination, the case animals identified Aspergillosis in the lung and kidney organs grown on SDA (Sabouraud Dextose Agar) media and observation under a microscope using 10% KOH dye and methylene blue. In the bacteriological examination, samples of lung and intestinal organs were cultured on general Nutrient Agar (NA) media, followed by selective Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (EMBA) media, primary tests, gram staining, biochemical tests and sugar tests until the results showed that there was a secondary infection of Klebsiella sp in the lung organ samples. The results of the examination related to parasites in the feces of case chickens by qualitative methods, namely natif (direct), sedimentation concentration, and buoyancy concentration were confirmed not to be found worm eggs or coccidia. From this case study it can be concluded that the case chicken was infected with Aspergillosis. Prevention of the spread of Aspergillosis should be done by improving farm management such as housing sanitation and good husbandry methods to prevent the risk of livestock experiencing the disease.

The behaviours of different carnivore and livestock species shape spatial patterns of human–carnivore conflict

Abstract Understanding the ecological and human factors that shape the loss of livestock to wild carnivores can help target conservation efforts. We used 5 years of livestock depredation records (2009–2013, n = 1147) alongside Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, to investigate how spatial patterns vary by carnivore and livestock species. Dominant patterns across all species and seasons included an increased likelihood of depredation closer to protected areas (core carnivore habitat) and in more open areas closer to human settlements (where livestock are most abundant). Lions were less likely than spotted hyenas to attack livestock further from protected areas, while goat and donkey depredation was more concentrated around homesteads compared to cattle depredation. Leopards were more likely than other predators to attack livestock in areas of higher human density and nearer water sources, likely reflecting their preference for goats and sheep which generally remain near homesteads unless taken to watering holes. Carnivores make trade‐offs between attacking livestock where it is most available (near human settlements) and where the risk of detection and retaliation by humans is lower (nearer protected areas, in more wooded habitats, and further from human activity). These results have helped target local mitigation strategies. They may also inform human–wildlife conflict mitigation at other sites globally by highlighting the need to understand species‐specific differences in conflict patterns and tailor solutions accordingly. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

A Genetic Tool to Identify Predators Responsible for Livestock Attacks in South America and Recommendations for Human-Wildlife Conflict Mitigation.

Livestock predation induces global human-wildlife conflict, triggering the retaliatory killing of large carnivores. Although domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) contribute to livestock depredation, blame primarily falls on wild predators. Dogs can also transmit pathogens between wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. Therefore, the presence of free-ranging dogs can have negative consequences for biodiversity conservation, smallholder economy, food supply, and public health, four of the United Nations' Sustainable Developed Goals (SDGs) for 2030. In Ecuador, where livestock sustains rural households, retaliatory poaching threatens Andean bear (Tremarctos ornatus), jaguar (Panthera onca), and puma (Puma concolor) populations. However, the role of dogs in these incidents remains underexplored. The present study evaluates the possibility of reliable molecular identification of predatory species from DNA traces in bite wounds. Our results revealed the presence of dog saliva on four out of six livestock carcasses presumably attacked by wild predators. These findings highlight the importance of rectifying misinformation about large carnivores in Ecuador and the need to control dog populations. We recommend that local administrations incorporate DNA analysis into livestock predation events to examine how common the problem is, and to use the analysis to develop conflict mitigation strategies which are essential for the conservation of large carnivores.

Wild Ungulates Constitute the Basis of the Diet of the Iberian Wolf in a Recently Recolonized Area: Wild Boar and Roe Deer as Key Species for Its Conservation.

The Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) is recolonizing historical distribution areas after decades of absence. As in other human-dominated landscapes, finding a balance to protect this species by favoring recolonization and mitigating human-wildlife conflicts is a challenge. Since wolves are often generalist opportunistic predators, we studied their diet composition in central Spain to evaluate the consumption of domestic ungulates and provide reliable data that could help local authorities to deal with the current wolf-cattle ranchers conflict and coexistence. Diet composition (% prey occurrence, % prey ingested biomass) was analyzed through the identification of prey hairs present in 671 scats collected between 2017 and 2021. The wolves fed more on wild ungulates (82% occurrence) than domestic ones (18%). Wild boar (Sus scrofa, 44% occurrence) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus, 35%) were the most consumed prey. The wolves positively selected these two species. The wolves' diets varied between seasons, years, and forest regions, but a diet based on wild ungulates predominated over domestic ones. Food niche breadth showed variations depending on seasons and years. Preserving the availability and diversity of wild ungulates may favor reducing livestock attacks and would be an achievable goal that would help to conserve this species and reduce conservation conflicts.

A necropsy of negative human-puma interaction in the high Andes: Are pumas in poor body condition more likely to attack livestock?

Globally, it is not yet clear whether particular individuals of apex predators with specific body conditions are more likely to attack livestock. In the Andes, attacks on livestock by pumas (Puma concolor) represent a recurring problem that, consequently, leads to the persecution and lethal removal of this predator by ranchers. However, although the anthropic motivations that lead to the lethal removal of pumas are known, the body conditions of the individuals that attack livestock are still unknown. From 2015 to 2016, three pumas were killed by ranchers after attacks on livestock in the department of Cuzco, at an average elevation of 4415 m, in southeastern Peru. The necropsy of these individuals revealed that they were all deviating from normal health and body conditions (cachexia, tarsal fracture, teeth problems and unusual stomach content). Although based on only three individuals, our findings allow us to hypothesize that these individuals did not meet the necessary body conditions for hunting wild prey. This could increase their states of hunger and lead them to forage in livestock landscapes, which in turn could serve as auxiliary foraging sites with more energetically profitable prey. We consider it essential to develop further research efforts to understand what ecological conditions cause pumas to be more vulnerable to human-induced mortality. This information is essential to further understand the characteristics of the ecological niche of these large predators in current anthropic contexts and, therefore, to direct coherent conservation strategies.

Ritual Function of Atik Talak Bala in Tanjung Bonai Aur Village, Sumpur Kudus Sub-District

This study discusses the Functions of the Atik Tulak Bala Ritual in the Tanjung Bonai Aur District, Sumpur Kudus District, Sijunjung Regency. The aim of this research is to find out how the Functions of the Tulak Bala Atik Ritual and how the implementation of the Tulak Bala Atik in the Tanjung Bonai Aur District. The theory used in this study namely Functionalism theory from Malinowski which explains about the function of the ritual. The method used is a qualitative research method with an ethnographic approach. The data collection techniques are field observations, interviews, and documentation. The findings from this study are that Atik Tulak Bala has a function as a way to resist evil things that are faced by society, as well as those that attack livestock or crops. Atik Tulak Bala also has a function as a way to eliminate conflicts that exist in society, because divisions that occur in society can be a disaster that will befall the nagari. Implementation of Atik Tulak Bala by walking from one end of the village to the other end of the village. The community really believes that the disaster that comes and affects the whole community, of course, must also be overcome by working together too. During the trip, participants are prohibited from participating in the halfway ritual, if they are unable to afford the participants may take the available vehicle, with the condition that they continue Atik until the last point of Atik, then Atik is closed by reading Du'a rejecting Bala and also praying for safety, so that all people are protected from disease outbreaks and their sustenance is facilitated. Finally, before the participants go home, they should rest first and eat together first.

Efficacy of Bomas (Kraals) in Mitigating Livestock Depredation in Maasai Mara Conservancies, Kenya

Livestock depredation is a major conservation challenge globally, causing significant economic losses to pastoralists and threatening large carnivore species outside protected areas. Our study investigated the temporal and spatial distribution of livestock depredation incidences, carnivore species associated with livestock depredation, and assessed mitigation measures in Maasai Mara Conservancies in Southern Kenya. Using daily monitoring of livestock depredation cases, we made comparisons between livestock attacks occurring in predator-proof bomas and those with traditional kraals. A total of 305 livestock depredation incidents were recorded between January and December 2021, translating to a total tally of 1411 livestock maimed or killed. Most livestock depredation incidents occurred during the day (59%) as opposed to night (41%), but this difference was not significant. Livestock depredation incidents in the nighttime occurred mostly inside traditional kraals (34%) and occurred the least in predator-proof kraals (2%). Lions were responsible for more livestock attacks in the grazing fields compared with leopards, hyenas, and wild dogs. Hyenas were more daring and attacked livestock inside traditional bomas relative to lions and leopards. Our study concludes that predator-proof bomas are more effective in minimizing livestock depredation and can be embraced as a sound intervention for human–carnivore co-existence in communities’ wildlife conservation areas.

Ecology of large felids and their prey in small reserves of the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico.

Jaguars and pumas are top-predator species in the Neotropics that are threatened by habitat destruction, illegal poaching of their body parts and their favored prey, and by the human-wildlife conflicts that arise when predators attack livestock. Much of the remaining felid habitat in the Americas is in protected nature reserves that are too small and isolated to support local populations. Surrounding forests therefore play a vital role in felid conservation. Successful long-term conservation of these two felids requires evidence-based knowledge of their biological and ecological requirements. We studied population distributions of jaguars and pumas and their prey in and between two small, private reserves of the Northern Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, with areas of 25 and 43 km2. During 2 years of camera trapping (2015 and 2016), we detected 21 jaguars, from which we estimated an average space requirement of 28-45 km2/individual. Dietary niche overlap exceeded random expectation. The most frequently occurring prey items in jaguar and puma diets were collared peccary and deer. Jaguar also favored nine-banded armadillos and white-nosed coati, while puma favored canids. Both felids avoided ocellated turkey. Overall, diet of jaguars was less species-rich, but similar in niche breadth, to that of pumas. A fluid use of space by both species, in 2015 tending toward mutual attraction and in 2016 toward partial exclusion of pumas by jaguars, combined with the high dietary overlap, is consistent with a dominance hierarchy facilitating coexistence. Jaguars and pumas favor the same prey as the people in local communities who hunt, which likely will intensify human-wildlife impacts when prey become scarce. We conclude that even small reserves play an important role in increasing the continuity of habitat for prey and large felids, whose generalist habits suppress interspecific competition for increasingly limiting prey that are largely shared between them and humans.

Retaliatory killing negatively affects African lion (Panthera leo) male coalitions in the Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem, Tanzania.

In landscapes where people and lions coexist, conflicts are common due to livestock predation and threats to human safety. Retaliatory lion killing by humans is often a consequence and is one of the leading causes of lion population declines across Africa. We assessed the effects of retaliatory lion killing on male lion coalitions in the Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem (TME) using a long-term dataset of lion monitoring for ten lion prides, spanning over a fourteen year-period from 2004-2018. We also interviewed 214 respondents about their attitudes and awareness of the effects of retaliatory killing on lions. We found that male lion coalitions were larger and lasted for a longer tenure period in locations with low risk of retaliatory killing, as well as far away from active hunting blocks. Further, young people (18-35 years old) had a more positive attitude towards lion existence and conservation compared to older age classes. Surprisingly, people with primary or secondary level of education were more likely to having lions killed if they attack livestock compared to people with no formal education, although the former supported lion presence for tourism in protected areas. We conclude that retaliatory killing has a large effect on long-term lion coalition dynamics and, thus, survival. Community awareness on retaliation effect varies widely, and we recommend implementing better education and policy strategies at TME to protect the declining carnivore populations.

Griffon vultures, livestock and farmers: Unraveling a complex socio-economic ecological conflict from a conservation perspective

An unexpected human-wildlife conflict between vultures and livestock has emerged in Europe during the last two decades. Farmers attributed changes in vulture behavior, due to food shortages caused by sanitary regulations, to increasing livestock interactions (‘vulture attacks’). To disentangle this conflict, we analyzed 683 farmer complaints between 1996 and 2020 in Catalonia (northeastern Spain) and investigated the eco-anthropological factors driving their frequency. We also assessed farmers' perception through 127 interviews. Most complaints (80 %) occurred during the birthing season, mainly involving cattle (76.5 %), followed by horses (14.9 %) and sheep/goats (8.6 %). From 2008 to 2020, vulture-livestock conflicts cost the government €192,000 (~22 % of claims compensated). The frequency of complaints was positively associated with extensive livestock density, griffon vulture Gyps fulvus abundance (breeding and non-breeding), shorter distances to landfill sites and, to a lesser extent, to supplementary feeding stations. In contrast, there was a negative relationship between complaints and the number of griffon vulture breeding pairs, suggesting that long-distance foraging movements by both breeding and non-breeding individuals may play a major role in determining the occurrence of conflicts. Farmers (88 %) said that vultures attack livestock and that attacks had increased in recent years because of significant vulture population increases and food shortages due to sanitary regulations. They considered government policies and compensation ineffective. We highlight the critical need for mitigation in areas with high extensive livestock numbers, particularly during birthing times. Scientific assessments and interdisciplinary awareness campaigns on the coexistence of vultures and livestock are necessary to harmonize biodiversity conservation and agro-pastoral practices in rural economies.

Bioacaricidal effects of three volatile oils on cattle ticks

Use of synthetic chemicals in addressing livestock attacks by ticks has negative effects on animals, handlers and the environment. These problems necessitate search for potent alternatives in bioacaricides particularly volatile oils. Acaricidal effects of hydro-distilled volatile oils from the fresh leaves of Eucalyptus citriodora, Ocimum gratissimum (OG) and Callistemon citrinus were evaluated on ticks obtained from infested cattle using topical method at varying concentrations in acetone. For each concentration, ten ticks of similar species were placed in Petri dishes and administered 20μL of the mixture of volatile oil and acetone. Acetone (20μL) was used as control and the effects were observed for 24 h. Out of three tick species identified, Rhipicephalus microplus was most abundant and most sensitive to the oils. Others are Amblyomma hebraeum and Hyalomma rufipes (most resistant). The volatile oil of OG was the most potent with LC50 of < 2 % (< 0.4 μL), < 2 % and 7.97% (1.59 μL) on the organisms respectively. The 5% of OG produced 100% mortality on R. microplus in 10-25 min while 20% concentration produced 100% mortality on H. rufipes in 24 h. Volatile oils of these plants particularly OG can serve as potent alternative bio-acaricidal agents to chemicals.