Anatomical Atlas Research Articles

Transcriptomic analysis of mosaic brain differentiation underlying complex division of labor in a social insect

Concerted developmental programming may constrain changes in component structures of the brain, thus limiting the ability of selection to form an adaptive mosaic of size-variable brain compartments independent of total brain size or body size. Measuring patterns of gene expression underpinning brain scaling in conjunction with anatomical brain atlases can aid in identifying influences of concerted and/or mosaic evolution. Species exhibiting exceptional size and behavioral polyphenisms provide excellent systems to test predictions of brain evolution models by quantifying brain gene expression. We examined patterns of brain gene expression in a remarkably polymorphic and behaviorally complex social insect, the leafcutter ant Atta cephalotes. The majority of significant differential gene expression observed among three morphologically, behaviorally, and neuroanatomically differentiated worker size groups was attributable to body size. However, we also found evidence of differential brain gene expression unexplained by worker morphological variation and transcriptomic analysis identified patterns not linearly correlated with worker size but sometimes mirroring neuropil scaling. Additionally, we identified enriched gene ontology terms associated with nucleic acid regulation, metabolism, neurotransmission, and sensory perception, further supporting a relationship between brain gene expression, brain mosaicism, and worker labor role. These findings demonstrate that differential brain gene expression among polymorphic workers underpins behavioral and neuroanatomical differentiation associated with complex agrarian division of labor in A. cephalotes.

Seeing clearly - Plant anatomy through Katherine Esau's microscopy lens.

Describing, naming and understanding the tissues and cell types composing biological organisms underpin myriad research endeavours in the biosciences. This is obvious when the organismal structure is a direct subject of the investigation such as in analyses of structure-function relationships. However, it also applies when structure represents the context. Gene expression networks and physiological processes cannot be divorced from the spatial and structural framework of the organs in which they operate. Atlases of anatomy and a precise vocabulary are therefore key tools on which modern scientific endeavours in the life sciences are based. One of the seminal authors whose books are familiar to nearly everyone in the plant biology community is Katherine Esau (1898-1997), a phenomenal plant anatomist and microscopist whose textbooks are still used daily around the world - 70 years after their first publication. Several technical innovations in microscopy have emerged since Esau's time and plant biological studies by authors who were trained using her books are shown side-by-side with Esau's drawings.

Old name, new face: A systematic analysis of flexor digitorum superficialis muscle with “chiasma antebrachii”

The gross anatomy of the forearm flexors, particularly that of the flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) muscle, has been described and graphically illustrated in several anatomical books and atlases starting in the middle of the century before last. However, in anatomical dissection studies as well as in clinical-anatomical courses training muscle-specific targeted injections due to movement disorders such as dystonia or spasticity, it has become apparent that there is a need for a closer investigation of the complex construction of the FDS muscle. To this end, we studied the structure of the muscle bellies and tendons of FDS on 46 human body donates that have been used either in our dissection or clinical-anatomical training courses. With this, we demonstrate here the topographical configuration of the individual muscle belly for each of digits 2 through 5 and the exact paths of their tendons until their passing through the carpal tunnel. Furthermore, we demonstrate the presence of a chiasm of the FDS tendons for the digits 2 and 3, approximately 3–4 cm proximal of the carpal tunnel. Thus, we introduce herewith the terminology “chiasma antebrachii”. These findings were confirmed in situ by imaging of fixed human body donates via MRI and corroborated by MRI and ultrasound imaging in two volunteers. Taken together, the present findings enable an updated understanding of the complex organization of the heads, bellies, and tendons of FDS that is relevant not only for anatomical teaching but also clinical interventions.

Contrast-enhanced computed tomography and cross-sectional anatomy of the trunk in the brownbanded bamboo shark (Chiloscyllium punctatum).

Computed tomography (CT) is used in veterinary medicine for the diagnosis of bones and soft tissue diseases in various species. In addition, CT has recently been used to diagnose aquatic animals, including Selachimorpha, which are difficult to diagnose out of water. However, because Selachimorpha do not have adipose tissue in the coelomic cavity, the coelomic organs cannot be fully identified using non-contrast CT (NCCT). The aim of this study is to present the anatomical features of the cadaver, NCCT, and contrast-enhanced CT (CECT) as well as the change in CT values of the coelomic organs and musculature of the brownbanded bamboo shark. NCCT scans were performed under anaesthesia in one male and one female shark. CECT was performed 30 min after iopamidol was administered intravenously. The sharks were euthanized, frozen at -20°C, and sliced in the same position in which they were scanned. Using electric band saw, 10-mm transversal sections were obtained. The anatomical structures of both males and females were identified by transversal sections, and CT images homologous to transversal sections were then selected. Sagittal and coronal CECT images were also obtained to facilitate understanding of the location and size of coelomic organs. Although bone structure and air in organs could be sufficiently discriminated on NCCT image, the coelomic organs were almost indistinguishable. On the other hand, CECT images obtained sufficient contrast to identify most coelomic organs in addition to bone and air. The results provide an atlas of a cross-sectional anatomy and CECT images, which is useful information for the medical diagnosis of coelomic organs in live Selachimorpha.

Transcriptomics for Clinical and Experimental Biology Research: Hang on a Seq.

Sequencing the human genome empowers translational medicine, facilitating transcriptome-wide molecular diagnosis, pathway biology, and drug repositioning. Initially, microarrays are used to study the bulk transcriptome; but now short-read RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) predominates. Positioned as a superior technology, that makes the discovery of novel transcripts routine, most RNA-seq analyses are in fact modeled on the known transcriptome. Limitations of the RNA-seq methodology have emerged, while the design of, and the analysis strategies applied to, arrays have matured. An equitable comparison between these technologies is provided, highlighting advantages that modern arrays hold over RNA-seq. Array protocols more accurately quantify constitutively expressed protein coding genes across tissue replicates, and are more reliable for studying lower expressed genes. Arrays reveal long noncoding RNAs (lncRNA) are neither sparsely nor lower expressed than protein coding genes. Heterogeneous coverage of constitutively expressed genes observed with RNA-seq, undermines the validity and reproducibility of pathway analyses. The factors driving these observations, many of which are relevant to long-read or single-cell sequencing are discussed. As proposed herein, a reappreciation of bulk transcriptomic methods is required, including wider use of the modern high-density array data-to urgently revise existing anatomical RNA reference atlases and assist with more accurate study of lncRNAs.

Ensembling shallow siamese architectures to assess functional asymmetry in Alzheimer’s disease progression

The development of methods based on artificial intelligence for the classification of medical imaging is widespread. Given the high dimensionality of this type of images, it is imperative to use the information contained in relevant regions for further classification. This information can be derived from the morphology of the region of interest, in terms of measurements such as area, perimeter, etc. However, the performance of the classification system strongly depends on the correct selection of the type of information employed. We propose in this work an alternative for evaluating differences between brain regions that relies on the basis of Siamese neural networks. Initially, brain scans are delimited by an anatomical atlas. Next, each pair of regions of interest is then entered into a Siamese network, which is formed by relating the distance between the two individual outputs and the corresponding label. Features are extracted from the embeddings of the final linear layer. Finally, the classification is performed by combining the characteristics of each pair of regions into an ensemble architecture. Performance was assessed by determining how asymmetry between the right and left hemispheres changes during progressive brain degeneration, from mild cognitive impairment to severe atrophy associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Our method discriminates with an accuracy of 98.95% between controls and AD patients, and most important, it predicts the cognitive decline in patients suffering from mild cognitive impairment that will develop AD before it occurs with an accuracy of 78.41%. These results demonstrate the applicability of our proposal in the study of a wide range of pathologies.

Cross-sectional and skeletal anatomy of long-tailed gorals (Naemorhedus caudatus) using imaging evaluations.

Accurate diagnosis of diseases in animals is crucial for their treatment, and imaging evaluations such as radiographs, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are important tools for this purpose. However, a cross-sectional anatomical atlas of normal skeletal and internal organs of long-tailed gorals (Naemorhedus caudatus) has not yet been prepared for diagnosing their diseases. The objective of this study was to create an anatomical atlas of gorals using CT and MRI, which are imaging techniques that have not been extensively studied in this type of wild animal in Korea. The researchers used CT and MRI to create an anatomical atlas of gorals, and selected 37 cross-sections from the head, thoracic, lumbar, and sacrum parts of gorals to produce an average cross-sectional anatomy atlas. This study successfully created an anatomical atlas of gorals using CT and MRI. The atlas provides valuable information for the diagnosis of diseases in gorals, which can improve their treatment and welfare. The study highlights the importance of developing cross-sectional anatomical atlases of gorals to diagnose and treat their diseases effectively.

GRANTed: Continuing the Legacy of Grant's Anatomy in the Digital Era.

The importance of online learning tools has grown significantly, especially in the field of anatomy which relies heavily on in-person laboratories. To support anatomy learners in remote and in-person contexts, we created an online library of 45 digital three-dimensional cadaveric models matching specimens in Grant's Atlas of Anatomy and Museum.

How Were Modified the Human Anatomy Study Habits During and After Confinement By the COVID-19 Pandemic?

During 2020 and 2021 the anatomy subject was developed by online classes. In 2022, face-to-face teaching activities were resumed. The objective was to compare the autonomous study habits of two student generations that coursed the Human Anatomy subject in online and face-to-face mode. Two groups of students were asked to fill-out an online questionnaire. Online Generation (OL) (n=185) and Face-to-face Generation (FF) (n=154). The difference between both groups was the learning activities. OL received only online classes, and FF received theoretical classes and laboratory activities in face-to-face sessions. The most of OL subjects had greater clarity about the contents (71.9 %) and the depth (50.8 %) that they should study them, in contrast with FF (58.4 %, p = 0.0124 and 24.7 %, p < 0.0001 respectively). In OL, 47 % spent more than 4 hours weekly studying human anatomy, whereas in FF 68.2 % (p<0.0001). In both groups, the most important resource was the Video Recorded Classes (90.8 % in OL, and 83.1 % in FF). For OL, the three priority resources were exclusively electronic: 1) Video Recorded Classes, 2) Apps on smartphone or tablets, and 3) Apps on laptop or computer. FF generation prioritized: 1) Video Recorded Classes, 2) Anatomy Atlas, and 3) Class Slides. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the students that received only online classes were able to plain their study time in a better way than whose were in face-to-face classes. However, they spent less time to study the topics. In addition, it was possible to determine that students prefer digital resources (video classes recorded and apps in smartphone or computer) over traditional resources such as textbook and anatomy atlas. It proposes to consider these results in the Human Anatomy subjects design, in virtual or face-to-face mode.

At the Interface of Atrocity, Art, and Anatomy: A Review of Eduard Pernkopf’s Atlas of Topographical and Applied Human Anatomy in Surgical Anatomy and Medical Ethics

At the Interface of Atrocity, Art, and Anatomy: A Review of Eduard Pernkopf’s Atlas of Topographical and Applied Human Anatomy in Surgical Anatomy and Medical Ethics

Verification of multi-structure targeting in chronic microelectrode brain recordings from CT scans

BackgroundLarge-scale microelectrode recordings offer a unique opportunity to study neurophysiological processes at the network level with single cell resolution. However, in the small brains of many experimental animals, it is often technically challenging to verify the correct targeting of the intended structures, which inherently limits the reproducibility of acquired data. New methodTo mitigate this problem, we have developed a method to programmatically segment the trajectory of electrodes arranged in larger arrays from acquired CT-images and thereby determine the position of individual recording tips with high spatial resolution, while also allowing for coregistration with an anatomical atlas, without pre-processing of the animal samples or post-imaging histological analyses. ResultsTesting the technical limitations of the developed method, we found that the choice of scanning angle influences the achievable spatial resolution due to shadowing effects caused by the electrodes. However, under optimal acquisition conditions, individual electrode tip locations within arrays with 250 µm inter-electrode spacing were possible to reliably determine. Comparison to existing methodsComparison to a histological verification method suggested that, under conditions where individual wires are possible to track in slices, a 90% correspondence could be achieved in terms of the number of electrodes groups that could be reliably assigned to the same anatomical structure. ConclusionsThe herein reported semi-automated procedure to verify anatomical targeting of brain structures in the rodent brain could help increasing the quality and reproducibility of acquired neurophysiological data by reducing the risk of assigning recorded brain activity to incorrectly identified anatomical locations. Data availabilityThe tools developed in this study are freely available as a software package at: https://github.com/NRC-Lund/ct-tools

Robot Assisted Neurosurgery for High-Accuracy, Minimally-Invasive Deep Brain Electrophysiology in Monkeys.

Traditional methods to access subcortical structures involve the use of anatomical atlases and high precision stereotaxic frames but suffer from significant variations in implantation accuracy. Here, we leveraged the use of the ROSA One(R) Robot Assistance Platform in non-human primates to study electrophysiological interactions of the corticospinal tract with spinal cord circuits. We were able to target and stimulate the corticospinal tract within the internal capsule with high accuracy and efficiency while recording spinal local field potentials and multi-unit spikes. Our method can be extended to any subcortical structure and allows implantation of multiple deep brain stimulation probes at the same time. Clinical Relevance- Our method will allow us to elucidate further roles of the corticospinal tract and its interactions with other processing centers in intact animals and in motor syndromes in the future.

THE MAIN MILESTONES OF THE ARHAEOZOOLOGICAL STUDIES IN UKRAINE

The primary focus of this research is the history of archaeozoological studies in Ukraine. Like every scientific branch, the development of archaeozoology has the stages of its beginning, generation, and separation of individual scientific discipline. The rise of scientific interest in the evolutionary process and fossil fauna at the end of the 19th century promote the investigation of the faunal remains of the relative modern geological period — Quaternary. The large number of ungulates faunal remains of this period was found on archaeological sites.&#x0D; Olexandr Brauner, was the first zoologist who worked with the faunal remains from archeological sites of Kherson region. As an archaeozoologist, V. Gromova actively participated in the research of faunal collections from the different archaeological sites of Ukraine. She compiled the almost first atlases of mammals anatomy for archaeozoologists.&#x0D; Ivan Pidoplichko is the founder of the archaeozoological school in Ukraine. His professional career began from organization of the working group of archaeozoologists to the head of the Paleozoological department of the Institute of Zoology of Academy of Sciences of UkrSSR (now Schmalhausen Institute of Zoology). Ivan Pidoplichko also is the founder of the National Museum of Natural history which is one of the centers of archaeozoological studies. Well known archaeozoologists such as V. Bibikva, N. Bilan (Tymchenko), N. Kornijetz, V. Topachevski, P. Puchkov, and O. Zhuravliov worked under the lead of Ivan Pidoplichko. In the 1970s O. Zhuravliov started to work in the Institute of Archaeology Academy of Sciences of the UkrSSR. During the last two decadesYe. Yanish, M. Kublij, T. Bitkovska, A. Stupak and O. Seniuk joined archaeozoological studies. The current archaeozoology studies in Ukraine are still developing.

Abnormal brain functional and structural connectivity between the left supplementary motor area and inferior frontal gyrus in moyamoya disease

BackgroundDisruption of brain functional connectivity has been detected after stroke, but whether it also occurs in moyamoya disease (MMD) is unknown. Impaired functional connectivity is always correlated with abnormal white matter fibers. Herein, we used multimodal imaging techniques to explore the changes in brain functional and structural connectivity in MMD patients.MethodsWe collected structural images, resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging for each subject. Cognitive functions of MMD patients were evaluated using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), and Trail Making Test parts A and B (TMT-A/-B). We calculated the functional connectivity for every paired region using 90 regions of interest from the Anatomical Automatic Labeling Atlas and then determined the differences between MMD patients and HCs. We extracted the functional connectivity of paired brain regions with significant differences between the two groups. Correlation analyses were then performed between the functional connectivity and variable cognitive functions. To explore whether the impaired functional connectivity and cognitive performances were attributed to the destruction of white matter fibers, we further analyzed fiber integrity using tractography between paired regions that were correlated with cognition.ResultsThere was lower functional connectivity in MMD patients as compared to HCs between the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus, between the bilateral supramarginal gyrus, between the left supplementary motor area (SMA) and the left orbital part of the inferior frontal gyrus (IFGorb), and between the left SMA and the left middle temporal gyrus (P < 0.01, FDR corrected). The decreased functional connectivity between the left SMA and the left IFGorb was significantly correlated with the MMSE (r = 0.52, P = 0.024), MoCA (r = 0.60, P = 0.006), and TMT-B (r = -0.54, P = 0.048) in MMD patients. White matter fibers were also injured between the SMA and IFGorb in the left hemisphere and were positively correlated with reduced functional connectivity.ConclusionsBrain functional and structural connectivity between the supplementary motor area and inferior frontal gyrus in the left hemisphere are damaged in MMD. These findings could be useful in the evaluation of disease progression and prognosis of MMD.

Improved resolution of D-bar images of ventilation using a Schur complement property and an anatomical atlas.

BackgroundElectrical impedance tomography (EIT) is a nonionizing imaging technique for real‐time imaging of ventilation of patients with respiratory distress. Cross‐sectional dynamic images are formed by reconstructing the conductivity distribution from measured voltage data arising from applied alternating currents on electrodes placed circumferentially around the chest. Since the conductivity of lung tissue depends on air content, blood flow, and the presence of pathology, the dynamic images provide regional information about ventilation, pulsatile perfusion, and abnormalities. However, due to the ill‐posedness of the inverse conductivity problem, EIT images have a coarse spatial resolution. One method of improving the resolution is to include prior information in the reconstruction.PurposeIn this work, we propose a technique in which a statistical prior built from an anatomical atlas is used to postprocess EIT reconstructions of human chest data. The effectiveness of the method is demonstrated on data from two patients with cystic fibrosis.MethodsA direct reconstruction algorithm known as the D‐bar method was used to compute a two‐dimensional reconstruction of the conductivity distribution in the plane of the electrodes. Reconstructions using one step in an iterative (regularized) Newton's method were also computed for comparison. An anatomical atlas consisting of 1589 synthetic EIT images computed from X‐ray computed tomography (CT) scans of 74 adult male subjects was computed for use as a statistical prior. The resolution of the D‐bar images was then improved by maximizing the conditional probability density function of an image that is consistent with the a priori information and the statistical model. A new method to evaluate the accuracy of the EIT images using CT scans of the imaged patient as ground truth is presented. The novel approach is tested on data from two patients with cystic fibrosis.Results and ConclusionsThe D‐bar images resulted in better structural similarity index measures (SSIM) and multiscale (MS) SSIM measures for both subjects using the mask or amplitude evaluation approach than the one‐step (regularized) Newton's method. Further improvement was achieved using the Schur complement (SC) approach, with MS‐SSIM values of 0.718 and 0.682 using SC evaluated with the mask and amplitude approach, respectively, for Patient 1, and MS‐SSIM values of 0.726 and 0.692 using SC evaluated with the mask and amplitude approach, respectively, for Patient 2. The results from applying an anatomical atlas and statistical prior to EIT data from two patients with cystic fibrosis suggest that the spatial resolution of the EIT image can be improved to reveal pathology that may be difficult to discern in the original EIT image. The novel metric of evaluation is consistent with the appearance of improved spatial resolution and provides a new way to evaluate the accuracy of EIT reconstructions when a CT scan is available.

Benefits of\xa0a bilingual web-based anatomy atlas for nursing students in learning anatomy

BackgroundRegistered nurses are required for high-quality healthcare. Thus, the anatomy course is essential regarding professional knowledge of the human body during the nursing training process. However, previous studies have indicated that anatomy teaching time and anatomy teachers were reduced and insufficient. Therefore, to improve the learning of practical anatomy in response to these difficulties, a bilingual National Taiwan University web-based anatomy atlas (NTU-WAA) was created as a cross-platform application and its feasibility was evaluated.MethodsThe comparison of anatomy examination scores between nursing students of two cohorts (66 from the 2018–2019 cohort, whom was without NTU-WAA application; 54 from the 2019–2020 cohort, to whom NTU-WAA was offered) and the evaluation of questionnaires collected from nursing students of the 2019–2020 cohort and 4 anatomy teachers were carried out to define the feasibility of this strategy.ResultsResults obtained by nursing students for the 2019–2020 cohort showed a significant increase in anatomy learning performance compared with that of the 2018–2019 cohort with reference to the laboratory midterm [2018–2019 cohort vs. 2019–2020 cohort, mean (standard deviation, SD): 77.20 (16.14) vs. 81.80 (12.03); p = 0.043], the laboratory final examination [59.68 (15.28) vs. 80.35 (13.74); p < 0.001] and the theory final examination [80.85 (10.10) vs. 84.33 (6.925); p = 0.017]. Moreover, results of the questionnaires indicated that the new bilingual cross-platform atlas was highly accepted by students and teachers.ConclusionsThe NTU-WAA, a bilingual web-based atlas, was evaluated as a beneficial anatomy-learning tool that may enhance self-study of nursing students with consequent amelioration of their anatomy-related performance in both theoretical and laboratory examinations. This reflection suggests the future implementation of the bilingual web-based atlas on a large scale.

Analysis of Gross Anatomy Educational References Used by Anatomy Graduate Students

INTRODUCTION &amp; OBJECTIVEAnatomy educational references are seldom vetted for anatomy graduate programs and what is required or recommended may not be what learners actually used or preferred. This study sought to investigate the educational references, including gross anatomy textbooks, atlases, and dissectors that were required, recommended, actually used, and preferred by anatomy graduate students.MATERIALS &amp; METHODSA survey was developed, piloted, and then distributed to several anatomy society listservs and forums March–April 2020. The survey was also sent directly to anatomy graduate program directors for distribution to their respective cohorts. The survey consisted of 21 questions and 6 demographic questions. Participants selected the gross anatomy textbooks, atlases, and dissectors that were required, recommended, and actually used during their graduate anatomy program. Participants also selected their most preferred resources and described what they valued most from those resources. Descriptive statistics were calculated and open‐ended responses were coded and categorized.RESULTSNinety‐eight responses were included for analysis (66.3% faculty, 31.6% current graduate students, 2% postdoctoral fellows). The most required, actually used, and preferred textbook was Moore’s Clinically Oriented Anatomy (Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins, Wolters Kluwer) (32%, 28.9%, and 88.7%, respectively). The most commonly recommended textbooks were both Moore’s Clinically Oriented Anatomy and Netter’s Clinical Anatomy (Saunders) (both 18%). The most required, actually used, and preferred atlas was Netter’s Atlas of Human Anatomy (Saunders) (32.9%, 37.5%, and 41.5%, respectively), whereas the most frequently recommended atlas was Grant's Atlas of Anatomy (Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins) (27.7%). The most required, actually used, recommended, and preferred dissector was Grant's Dissector (Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins) (64.2%, 57.9%, 62.5%, and 69.8%, respectively). Respondents most valued textbook content with integrated clinical applications (46%), appropriately detailed images (8%), and ease of navigating or searching content (3%). For preferred atlases, respondents valued figures that are comprehendible (32%), detailed (18%), anatomically accurate with correct labels (11%), cadaveric photographs (12%), a variety of vantage points of the same region (6%), and an aesthetically‐pleasing design (3%). The most valued aspects of dissectors included clear (20%) stepwise instructions (18%) with reference figures depicting how to complete the dissection (8%).CONCLUSIONWhile a plethora of anatomical reference materials exist, only a select few are required, actually used, and preferred among surveyed anatomy graduate programs. Anatomy graduate students have specific preferences for textbooks, atlases, and dissectors that center around clinical applications, detail, and clarity in text, figures, or instructions.SIGNIFICANCE/IMPLICATIONModernization of anatomy reference materials is underway and these results may support the development of specific resources based on what was actually used and preferred by anatomy graduate students during their education.

Amalgamation of Arts, Anatomy and Passion in Creating an Anatomy Atlas for Active Learning

The objective of this study was to develop a photographic atlas of rabbit anatomy to provide a low cost and effective learning tool to help students understand anatomy better.HypothesisThe newly developed interactive anatomy e‐atlas will provide a better learning resource and reference for Gen Z students and help them to succeed.A brief statement of methods: System Approach – Selection of organ system Development of hand drawn maps and photographic plates Collection of feedback from Teaching Assistants (TA) and peers Improvement and preparation of additional photo plates Establish collaboration with instructional division to get additional help. Collaboration with peers Use in class and IRB submission Continue using the resource, collection of feedback. Take trainings to improve photography skills. Modifications and additions based on the feedback. A summary of the results Data collected so far shows a clear positive trend expressing effectiveness and usefulness of the newly created anatomy resource for muscular and vascular system of rabbit.A statement of the conclusions. In conclusion it could be said that the newly developed resource (Photographic Atlas of Rabbit Anatomy) has become an important and necessary tool for student learning. Collecting data will be continued for next three years to monitor its effectiveness in helping students to develop the skill for dissection and identification and gaining knowledge about anatomical distribution of muscles and blood vessels.

Continuing the Legacy of Grant’s Museum: Anatomy Education in the Digital Era

IntroductionIn the 1930s, an innovative adjunct available to anatomy learners was Grant’s Atlas of Anatomy and Grant’s Museum specimens of regional anatomy. With advancements in technology, learning tools used in anatomy education now also include digital reproductions of cadaveric specimens into 3D or interactive formats. Recent pivoting to online teaching and increased reliance on digital resources makes it a natural progression to advance the legacy of Grant's work with an online library of 3D models matching the museum. Realistic digital models are typically produced by either 3D reconstruction from image data, or photogrammetry, both requiring technical skill and time. Recent advances in light technology scanning equipment like the Artec Space Spider claim to produce a high‐fidelity 3D model within a time frame of 2‐3 hours from scan to finished digital model using their bundled software. In an ongoing project creating 3D models from prosections reproducing Grant’s Museum, we aimed to determine the efficiency of digital capture and the final model fidelity using the Artec Space Spider scanner.MethodsTwenty‐seven prosections were created to replicate 38 figures in Grant’s Atlas, ranging from simple geometries such as a lung, to more complex, including the posterior abdominal wall.Scanning &amp; post‐processing: Prosections were scanned using the Artec Space Spider, which captured images at around 7.5 frames per second (0.1 mm resolution). Post‐processing was completed in Artec Studio (Artec Studio 15 Professional x64 15.1.2.60) including alignment, hole‐filling and texture overlay. Early on, it was determined that many models needed digital sculpting, so we engaged expert digital artists using software (Zbrush 2021.6.6) for refinement of the models. The amount of time it took to scan and process each model was calculated to determine efficiency of model development.Fidelity confirmation: Ongoing feedback is being collected from an expert panel of anatomists representing five post‐secondary institutions. These experts are provided finished digital models and feedback is collected on the aspects of texture, lighting, anatomical detail (resolution) and model manipulation (user tools for examining online). This feedback will be finalized in February 2022.ResultsTable 1 depicts the breakdown of scanning and post‐processing time. Forty percent of the models were completed in under 3 hours, and these included prosections with simple geometries. Sixty percent of the models took more than 3 hours to complete, and these included more intricate prosections.ConclusionsWhile the Artec Space Spider may be a great tool to quickly generate anatomical models with simple geometry or features, it may not be ideal for replicating intricate anatomical prosections. Only 40% of scans took less than 3 hours to complete with most moderately complex models and all complex models taking over 3 hours. Much of the time spent on these models was in post‐processing, which was dedicated to filling gaps or refining the details of the models. Our findings suggest that the time:cost ratio may not justify the purchase of such high‐level technology when photogrammetry may result in similar models for relatively less investment.

Sequential Model of Teaching in Anatomy Lab Aims to Improve Student Learning

IntroductionAt the California University of Science and Medicine, School of Medicine, the anatomy department has developed a sequential model of teaching in which anatomical concepts are gradually introduced and integrated with increasingly complex modalities. This teaching pedagogy aims to establish strong anatomical foundations to equip students with the critical thinking skills to identify landmarks on prosected cadaveric specimens and radiographic imaging.MethodsAnatomy labs are divided into virtual and in‐person components. These lab sessions have been developed to teach anatomical structures to students in an explicitly stepwise progression. During virtual anatomy sessions, students are initially taught to draw simple line drawings of anatomical structures. Students progress from drawing anatomical structures to studying more complex, professional illustrations of those same structures, such as those in Netter's Atlas of Human Anatomy. Following exposure to illustrations, students are introduced to three‐dimensional images of the structures using virtual anatomy software. During independent in‐person lab sessions, students apply knowledge acquired from each of these prior learning modalities to identify structures on prosected specimens. Lastly, students implement critical thinking skills to distinguish anatomical landmarks and pathological changes in radiographic images.ResultsThis systematic progression of teaching aims to allow students to engage in higher‐level thinking in which they apply newly acquired knowledge to increasingly more complex material. By doing so, the following learning outcomes of each anatomy session can be successfully achieved: Identifying anatomical structures on plastinated specimens Identifying anatomical structures in various imaging modalities, such as X‐rays, CT, and MRI Discerning pathological structures from healthy structures in various imaging modalities Prospective data collection through course evaluation forms will be analyzed to assess the sequential teaching model's efficacy.Conclusion &amp; SignificanceUsing the sequential model of teaching in anatomy lab can effectively help medical students understand, rather than memorize, anatomy. The systematic scaffolding of anatomical concepts with increasingly complex material, progressing from line drawings to imaging interpretation, encourages critical thinking and reinforces learning. We expect these skills will prepare students for the challenges presented in their clinical years and beyond.