Women Athletes Research Articles

Validity of SenseWear Armband in assessing the energy expenditure at different exercise intensities during menstrual cycle

Objective: The purpose of this study was to determine the validity of the SenseWear Armband (SWA) in assessing the energy expenditure at different exercise intensities during midfollicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. Material and Methods: Twenty volunteer women athletes (age: 20.6±1.6 yrs, height: 168.3±7.3 cm; menstrual cycle: 28.8±2.1 days) with regular menstrual cycle participated in the study. Participants performed treadmill running exercise for 10 min at 35% and 75% of their VO2max in their midfollicular (days 7-9) and luteal phases (days 21-23). Phases of the menstrual cycle were confirmed by hormone analysis. Energy expenditure during the running exercise was assessed simultaneously by the indirect calorimetric method, and the SWA. Multi-way ANOVA was used for the effect of method (2) x phase (2) x intensity (2) on energy expenditure. In addition, the Pearson correlation coefficient was determined between the variables. Results: Estradiol and progesterone levels measured in the midfollicular phase were significantly higher than in luteal phase (p<0.05). Energy expenditure at 75% intensity was significantly higher than energy expenditure at 35% intensity (p<0.05). No significant method (p>0.05) and phase (p>0.05) effect was found in energy expenditure. There was no significant method x phase, phase x intensity, and method x phase x intensity interaction (p>0.05), however method x intensity interaction was significant (p<0.05). At the midfollicular phase the correlations between energy levels from indirect calorimetric and SWA methods were not significant (for 35%, r=0.382; for 75%, r=0.147; p>0.05). In contrast, significant correlation was found between energy levels from the indirect calorimetric, and the SWA methods at the luteal phase (for 35%, r=0.495; for 75%, r=0.748; p<0.05). Conclusions: The results of the present study indicated that energy expenditures at different menstrual phases were similar and that SWA was a valid method in assessing energy expenditure at different exercise intensities during the menstrual cycle.

The paradox of challenging and reinforcing stereotypes in women’s sport sponsor communication

ABSTRACT In recent years, women’s sport has experienced sustained growth, resulting in a positive shift in media coverage and increased attention from corporate sponsors. Past research has extended our understanding of the challenges, objectives and motivations of sponsors however, less is known with respect to whether sponsor communication perpetuates a gender-based narrative. In addressing this research gap, this study examines women’s sport sponsor communication to understand how gender stereotyping manifests in messaging around sponsorship objectives and women’s sport/athletes. Findings show that sponsor communication of objectives mirrors the traditional social roles held by women (centred on a communal orientation), while agentic gender traits associated with masculinity emerge in communication around women’s sport/athletes. Our study highlights the importance of message framing in sponsor communication and the need for simultaneously embracing and valuing both feminine and masculine traits. This is an important step towards creating a balanced narrative around women athletes and women’s sport.

Dilemma of Competitive Equality: Transgender vs Cisgender Athletes in Women's International Sports Competition

This research aims to solve the human rights issue of the participation of transgender female athletes in international sports competitions in the women's division. The existence of transgender female athletes yields two perspectives: inclusivity as a human right for transgender female athletes and unfair competition for cisgender female athletes. This issue occurs due to the physiological advantages possessed by a transgender female athlete from the high level of testosterone they have, which creates unfairness in sports competition for cisgender female athletes, and the policies of international sports organizations that exclude the participation of transgender female athletes who have experienced puberty to take part in international sports competitions. Several controversial cases have sparked debate in the international community, such as the Tiffany Newel case in the running competition and the Lia Thomas case in the swimming competition; both are female transgender athletes who won sports competitions in the women's division. Although a transgender individual already has inherent human rights regulated through international law, these rights could not be a basis that overrides the rights and freedoms of other people. In this case, the right to equal and safe competition for cisgender women. The solution to this problem is to develop an 'open category' which aims to ensure the participation of all world athletes in sports competitions regardless of gender or gender identity.

Fat-Free Mass Index in a Large Sample of National Collegiate Athletic Association Men and Women Athletes From a Variety of Sports.

Magee, MK, Fields, JB, Jagim, AR, and Jones, MT. Fat-free mass index in a large sample of National Collegiate Athletic Association men and women athletes from a variety of sports. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 311-317, 2024-Fat-free mass index (FFMI) can be used to categorize fat-free mass (FFM) relative to height. Normative values have been established in a variety of sports, as has suggested lower and upper thresholds of FFMI. However, FFMI has not been reported in a large sample of athletes, representing both sexes and multiple sport types. The purpose of this study was to evaluate differences in FFMI and establish normative values across a large sample of collegiate sports. A total of 1,961 athletes (men: n = 596, 10 sports; women: n = 1,365, 8 sports) participated. Height and mass were measured using a stadiometer and calibrated digital scale, respectively. Fat-free mass was assessed with air displacement plethysmography and used to calculate FFMI. Kruskal-Wallis test and one-way analysis of variance evaluated differences in FFMI in women's and men's sports, respectively. When collapsed across sport type and stratified by sex, men had a higher FFMI (21.5 ± 1.9 kg·m -2 vs. 17.9 ± 1.8 kg·m -2 ; p < 0.001). Differences occurred in FFMI across sport. In women, basketball athletes had the highest FFMI (18.9 kg·m -2 ) and highest 99th percentile for FFMI, whereas rowers had the lowest (16.9 kg·m -2 ). In men, throwers had the highest FFMI (25.7 kg·m -2 ) and highest 99th percentile, whereas volleyball athletes had the lowest (19.9 kg·m -2 ). Differences in FFMI may be attributable to dietary habits and physiological demands of respective sports. These results can provide information relative to differences in FFMI values across sports. In addition, sport-specific normative values can be used as benchmarks and targets for training, nutrition, and goal setting.

‘I’ve Always Fought a Little against the Tide to Get Where I Want to Be’—Construction of Women’s Embodied Subjectivity in the Contested Terrain of High-Level Karate

Karate can be both a martial art and a combat sport. Male and female karate athletes attended the Tokyo Olympic Games 2020 (2021). Elite sport often portrays female athletes through the sexualization of their bodies, while the martial environment leaves them open to accusations of masculinization. In the process of constructing themselves as fighters, karateka women do produce new ways of performing femininities and masculinities, which is a hard-work process of negotiations, leading them to the construction of a particular habitus strictly linked to their performativity within the environment. They take part in a contested terrain that mixes several elements that are often contrasting. In this article, we aim to present factors identified with the women athletes of the Spanish Olympic karate team that affect the construction of their embodied subjectivities. We focus on two main topics, authenticity as the real deal to belonging, and a possible gendered habitus struggling with the achievement of the condition of a warrior. We carried out an ethnographic study with the Spanish Olympic karate squad supported by autoethnographic elements from the first author. We focus here on the data from double interviews with 14 women athletes and their four male coaches. Embodied subjectivity as a process of subject construction to disrupt objectification and forms of othering showed to be a challenge, a complex task, and embedded in contradictions. Karate women’s embodied subjectivities are built in the transit between resisting and giving in. Despite several difficulties, through awareness and reflection on limitations, karateka may occupy their place as subjects, exerting agency, feeling empowered, and fighting consciously against the naturalized ‘tide’.

The psychological contract of women athletes in semi-professional team sports

ABSTRACT Within the dynamic landscape of women’s semi-professional and professional leagues, athletes and their employers are negotiating their employment relationship parameters. Positioning our research in a postfeminist sensibility, we explore both parties’ expectations and obligations through psychological contract (PC) theory. We conducted interviews across two semi-professional sports leagues, with 30 athletes, 20 coaches and managers and two league-level representatives. The data analysis identified three themes: 1. Obligations, commitment, and choice; 2. Expectations of conformity and power relations; 3. Fulfilling organisational goals. Many athletes spoke about power imbalances in the PC with employers “exploiting” athletes’ desire to be play in the league at almost any cost. Athletes felt they had little choice but to accept the current state of employment, endure sacrifices and hope for a better future where they could reach their potential through viable career pathways and a living wage. Our research provides a better understanding of the PC employment relationship and associated implications. Greater knowledge about PCs could be used to develop work practices and relations that enhance and benefit athletes and employers.

Effects of passive aquatic therapy WATSU (Water Shiatsu) in pregnancy: Results of a controlled pilot study

WATSU (Water Shiatsu) are healing situation methods including inactive stretches, alive changes and massage techniques executed in 35°C warm water. Pregnant daughters need cautious forms to weaken pain, stress, and fatigue. Therefore, we conducted a ship study judging the belongings of WATSU on gestation-connected complaints in meaningful wives. Nine athletic significant women at gestational period ≥28 were contained in an attack group (taking WATSU) and distinguished to eight women in a lifeless control group (taking no situation). WATSU was acted on days 1 and 4 of the study. Outcomes include corporal and psychometric in addition to subjective dossier. Participants in the control group achieved questionnaires only. WATSU was found to considerably lower partners’ levels of stress and pain and to better their insane fitness-related status of existence and character. In comparison to the lifeless control group, participants in the invasion group stated decline in seen stress from epoch 1 to day 8 (P=0.036), Cohen’s f=0.57). Qualitative dossier display that WATSU was enjoyed as pleasing and intensely relaxing. No negative aftereffects were stated. Our judgments support the whim that WATSU yields therapeutic benefits for significant mothers and warrant further research.

Leadership Qualities Among Women Leaders in Educational Institutions at Bangalore City

Purpose: First, it seeks to investigate the factors that influence women's leadership traits within academic institutions located in Bangalore. Second, it aims to gain a deeper understanding of the evolving role of women in leadership positions within modern society.&#x0D; &#x0D; Design/Methodology/Approach: To achieve its objectives, this study employs a qualitative research approach. Researchers conduct interviews and surveys within academic institutions in Bangalore. By gathering and analyzing this data, they intend to uncover key themes and patterns that shed light on the factors impacting women's leadership traits.&#x0D; &#x0D; Findings: The findings of this research reveal several noteworthy insights. It becomes evident that women's leadership traits are significantly influenced by societal perceptions and economic circumstances. Furthermore, the progression of women in their professional lives has played a crucial role in altering societal views. The study also acknowledges the importance of India's long-standing policy efforts to promote women's development. Additionally, it highlights the remarkable achievements of women in various fields, including academia and athletics.&#x0D; &#x0D; Research, Practical &amp; Social implications: In terms of implications, this study carries significance on multiple fronts. From a research standpoint, it offers valuable insights into the factors that shape women's leadership roles within academic institutions. Practically, the findings can inform strategies and initiatives aimed at promoting and enhancing women's leadership within the educational sector. On a broader social level, the study underscores the evolving role of women in Indian society, emphasizing the importance of gender equality as a key societal value.&#x0D; &#x0D; Originality/Value: In terms of originality, this research distinguishes itself by focusing on the specific context of academic institutions in Bangalore. Its value lies in its contribution to a deeper understanding of women's leadership within a culturally diverse context, shedding light on the unique factors at play in this region.

Manufacturing Dreams and Investing in Future Generations: Women Athletes’ Inspirational Labor in the Marketing and Promotion of Their Sport

Women athletes are often asked to participate in unpaid or underpaid community appearances and youth camps to generate fan interest, promote their sport, and inspire the next generation of athletes. The expectation to invest in the future of one’s sport for the benefit of others is a gendered process—requiring athletes to employ different forms of labor in addition to their athletic labor. Drawing from the literature on future-oriented labor and immaterial labor, we show how the sport industry is structured to extract value from what we refer to as women’s “inspirational labor.” Interviews with 29 women athletes and 15 managers in professional softball and soccer in the United States are used to illustrate the ideological and economic structures of inspirational labor.

Gladiator Girls: Transphobia in the Eighteenth Century and Today

Abstract: This article compares eighteenth-century translations of Juvenalian satire about women athletes and the rhetoric surrounding modern female Olympic athletes. Cultural perceptions of women athletes changed dramatically over the eighteenth century as such athletes came to be defined primarily by their femininity, a category that was being made stricter and narrower as gender difference emerged as a coherent ideology in eighteenth-century England. This article posits that eighteenth-century gender ideology is the root of modern transphobia and ends with a call for eighteenth-century studies scholars to examine their own work and sources for unacknowledged biases.

“That’s too stereotypical … I don’t want that to be how I identify”: Identity and body-related sport experiences of racialized young women athletes in Canada

There is minimal research on the sport experiences of racialized young women athletes in Canada. When studying racialized groups, an inclusive and meaningful approach to research is necessary because ethnicity and race are integral to understanding identity, diversity, discrimination, and overall experiences in sport. The purpose of this qualitative description study was to explore the identities and body-related sport experiences of racialized young women athletes in a variety of sports in Canada. Eight racialized young women athletes (ages 14–18 years; Mage = 16.63, SD = 1.19) participated in multiple semi-structured one-on-one interviews and reflexive photography. A reflexive thematic analysis was conducted, and three overarching themes were generated that describe the athletes’ identities and body-related sport experiences: (a) Who I am vs who they say I am; (b) My unique body in sport; and (c) The importance of representation. From these findings, three critical factors – intersectionality, discrimination, and diversity – are examined that influence the quality of sport experiences for racialized young women athletes in Canada.

“That Stuff Can Be Ugly:” Black Women in Sport, Stigma, and Public Mental Health Disclosures

ABSTRACT This research investigates Black women athletes’ long-form public mental health disclosures (LFPMHDs). We conducted a phenomenological thematic analysis and drew from Orbe’s co-cultural theory to illuminate the communicative practices and orientations that Black WNBA players rely on as co-cultural group members. We argue that the LFPMHDs in the current study confront multiple layers of stigma related to race, gender, and mental illness while confronting limitations of the “mental health conversation” within and outside of sport. Our phenomenological thematic analysis revealed that Black WNBA players used LFPMHDs to: (a) communicate self and model the risks of intimate social contact with mental illness; (b) educate others by retelling their story, claiming agency over mediated appropriations of their self-disclosure narratives; and (c) narrate triggers and breaking points that coincide with their past adoption of nonassertive communication approaches.

Who counts as a woman? A critical discourse analysis of petitions against the participation of transgender athletes in women's sport

This article aims to analyze the organizational anti-trans discourse on the presence of transgender athletes in women's sport. To achieve this, the petitions published from 2019 to 2022 on the websites of three US organizations (Save Women's Sports, Independent Council on Women's Sports, and the Women's Sports Policy Working Group) were analyzed. The analysis addressed the research questions of how this discourse defines trans women and trans bodies and reproduces the indispensability of sex segregation in sport competitions. The research revealed that the petitions’ authors identified trans athletes as biological males who have an advantage over cis women. The organizations demand that the protection of women's sport from trans women's participation and women's rights be based on the sex (assigned at birth) category. The article emphasizes that members and allies of these organizations perceive biomedical science as providing objective arguments for the sex dichotomy and the exclusion of trans women from sport competitions. At the same time, the petitions’ authors ignore sociocultural factors that influence the perception of gender dichotomy and athletic performance.

Sex Differences in Resting Metabolic Rate among Athletes and Association with Body Composition Parameters: A Follow-Up Investigation.

The purpose of this study was to examine sex differences in resting metabolic rate (RMR) and associations between measured RMR and body composition parameters in athletes. One-hundred and ninety collegiate men (n = 98; age: 20.1 ± 1.6 yr.; body mass: 92.7 ± 17.5 kg; height: 181.6 ± 6.2 cm, body mass index: 28.0 ± 4.7 kg/m2) and women (n = 92; age: 19.4 ± 1.1 yr.; body mass: 65.2 ± 11.0 kg; height: 168.0 ± 6.6 cm, body mass index: 23.0 ± 3.6 kg/m2) athletes volunteered to participate in this study. Athletes completed a body composition assessment using air displacement plethysmography and RMR using indirect calorimetry. Assessments were completed in a fasted state and after refraining from intense physical activity > 24 h prior to testing. Data were collected during the 2016-2019 seasons. Men had a higher RMR compared to women (2595 ± 433 vs. 1709 ± 308 kcals; p < 0.001); however, when adjusted for body mass (p = 0.064) and fat-free mass (p = 0.084), the observed differences were not significant. Height, body mass, body mass index, fat-free mass, and fat mass were positively associated with RMR in both men and women athletes (r = 0.4-0.8; p < 0.001). Body mass (men: β = 0.784; women: β = 0.832)) was the strongest predictor of RMR. Men athletes have a higher absolute RMR compared to their women counterparts, which is influenced by greater body mass and fat-free mass. Body mass is the strongest predictor of RMR in both men and women athletes.

"We are not products": Stereotyping women athletes in karate through demands on femininity and sensual bodies

In this paper, we are focusing on the conceptions of femininity, female bodies, and beauty in sport that women high-level karate fighters and their coaches developed in order to perform in a traditionally male-oriented sport. With so much higher public profile for women in sports (e.g., soccer, rugby, cricket, traditionally male sports), has anything changed in the traditional order of the male preserve? Thus, our aim here is to reflect on the set of shown conceptions and assumptions in order to add to the produced literature on women's sports studies and hopefully contribute to sought advancements, claiming change. We interviewed the 14 women athletes and their four men coaches composing the women's Spanish Olympic karate squad in preparation for the 2020 (2021) Tokyo Olympic Games. Two open-ended semi-structured interviews were carried out with each of the participants. We conclude that the sportive-martial environment is still strongly male-oriented, even though female participation has been increasing; nevertheless, girls and women still face several challenges to achieve belonging. They enter the environment and reach the status of black belts, or elite athletes. Notwithstanding, we argue that the amount of power they truly exercise is limited and submitted to the male hierarchy.

Women's sport and everyday resistance.

This paper presents a conceptual model to understand the relationship between everyday resistance and women's sport. Everyday resistance refers to when members of an oppressed group engage in mundane actions (i.e., playing sports) to resist dominant power structures and social norms. After reviewing resistance literature, we identify two levels of everyday resistance for women's sport: women's sport as everyday resistance and everyday resistance within women's sport. The former refers to when women participate in sport, thereby challenging social norms that marginalize women in society and exclude them from sport. The latter refers to how women athletes with intersecting marginalized identities resist the norms of who participates in women's sport and how, given the norms of sport that privilege whiteness, heteronormativity, and higher social classes among others. The model we introduce advances both sport scholarship and everyday resistance literature and can help scholars conceptualize how women create change in sport and in society-as well as how women athletes create change within women's sport, specifically.

Analysis of sudden cardiac death in competitive athletes, possibilities for reducing cases

Sudden cardiac death in athletes is rare (0.5 to 1 per 100000 athlete years), but sudden cardiac death in known athletes causes general shock. Our research aim was to collect and study as many sudden cardiac death cases as possible, judge the role of stress and look for ways to reduce fatal tragedies. From registers and newspaper articles found on the Internet, we collected 360 (including 14 women) athletes' sudden cardiac death cases where the sport, age and place of death (during training/competition/after) could be determined. From these, a single database has been prepared in order of the year of death. The cases were grouped and analyzed by sports. Based on our results and literature data, we made recommendations to reduce fatalities. There were more sudden cardiac deaths in competitions than in trainings (239 vs. 99), but tragedies also happened during warm-ups and chess without physical exertion, furthermore, there was no sudden cardiac death in the stakeless training of marathon/half marathon/triathlon athletes; all these prove the role of stress, so we recommend a psychological conversation before a high-stakes race. There were also a lot of sudden cardiac deaths (79/360) during team sports trainings, so we recommend reanimation readiness there as well. After training/competition, sudden cardiac death happened mainly in sports requiring high static effort, where post-competition monitoring is also recommended. Those who died in training were younger than those who died during the race (p<0.01), so young people should be monitored more closely for medical and (under)fitness. Marathon runners and triathletes were older than team athletes (p<0.005) and only died in competition, so for them a basic examination and an ECG within 1 month before competition are recommended. Conclusions drawn from literature data: sports medicine examination should be standardized and documented in an accessible way; since resuscitation started earlier and professionally is more effective, all competitors should receive reanimation training. Orv Hetil. 2023; 164(29): 1155-1163.

“If I talk about it, I'm weak, and I'm supposed to be strong”: experiences of body-related shame in women athletes

ABSTRACT Body-related shame – operationalised as feeling inadequate about one’s appearance, fitness, function, and bodily behaviours – is an emotional experience with particular relevance to athletes given the evaluative, social, and achievement-oriented nature of sport. To date, in-depth explorations of athletes’ body-related shame have been scarce and have had a restricted focus on the domain of bodily appearance. Exploring body-related shame is particularly important for women, given consistent evidence for the gendered experience of shame contextualised to the body. As such, the present study explored the phenomenological experiences of body-related shame in women athletes. Sixteen purposefully sampled women athletes aged 18–26 with a history of body preoccupation were recruited to participate in two semi-structured interviews separated by a week-long reflective journaling exercise. Participants shared experiences of body-related shame related to appearance, health behaviours, training, and performance in the sport context. Using reflexive thematic analysis, researchers identified five themes that highlighted women athletes’ experiences of body-related shame. Themes included (a) striving to be a worthy athlete; (b) conflicting body ideals and changing roles in sport; (c) the objectified sport body; (d) anti-fatness as the bedrock of sport; (e) shame resistance and athletic invincibility. Results from this study highlight the unique factors that contribute to body-related shame among women athletes from a variety of sport backgrounds and provide preliminary insight to inform the measurement of body-related shame and potential individual and systems-level interventions to improve the emotional well-being of women athletes.

Fictional girls who play to play: pushing on narratives of competition in young adult sports literature

ABSTRACT Traditional narratives of sport posit winning as the defining goal in ways that can feel and be exclusionary to young people and result in a lack of enjoyment and subsequent decision to avoid or discontinue involvement in sport. This is particularly true for girls and young women who participate in sport at lower rates and quit at higher rates than boys and young men. Shifting the focus of sport away from winning can open space for a wider range of girls and young women to see themselves as athletes. Scholars have highlighted how story in the form of counter-narratives can play a role in changing readers’ perspectives. However, no attention has been paid to fictional representations of athletes engaging in non-competitive sport and how these depictions might invite girls and young women to imagine themselves differently in sporting spaces. This paper employs thematic inductive analysis to examine three, girl-centric young adult sports novels that work as counter-narratives to examine what happens when winning is not the central goal of participation in sport. Specifically, it explores what fictional young women athletes gain through their participation in non-competitive sport and what young adult readers might gain in their engagement with these titles. Findings reveal how participation in non-competitive sport gives the fictional athletes a sense of full personhood, confidence and pride in what their bodies can do, and connection with something larger than themselves. These titles can show readers that their engagement in sport is desirable, that non-competitive sport is beneficial to them, and that their engagement in sport is possible, that non-competitive sport is for them. The paper suggests that stories of non-competitive sport have the potential to open equitable access by inviting more young people, particularly those who have not seen themselves in stories of sport, to engage as athletes.

Physical fitness, hormonal profile, nutritional and psychological aspects assessment of transgender women volleyball players submitted to physical tests: protocol paper of a prospective cohort

To evaluate aerobic capacity, strength and other physiological, nutritional, and psychological variables which may influence the performance of transgender women (TW) athletes and compare them to cisgender women (CW) and...