ASTM Standards Research Articles

Transesterification reaction time impacts on oxidation stability and acid number of biodiesel production from waste cooking oil

The scarcity of fossil fuels, environmental concerns, and the sharp rise in fossil fuel prices have driven scientists to search for alternative fuels. The characteristics of biodiesel have made the quest for high-quality biodiesel production particularly appealing. The use of waste cooking oil is a key component in reducing biodiesel production costs by 60-90%. Researchers have employed various types of transesterification reactions with both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production; in this study, a 0.5% NaOH catalyst is used. The objectives of this study are to produce biodiesel fuel based on waste cooking oil, evaluate the impact of reaction time variation on the oxidation value and acid value of biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil, and statistically test the effects of reaction time on the oxidation value and acid value of biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The optimum yield was obtained at a reaction time of 90 minutes, achieving 97%. The results for acid number and oxidation value for various reaction times complied with ASTM, EN, and SNI standards. Linear regression analysis of ANOVA for the acid number concluded that the P-value t3 is 0.399, which is greater than Alpha = 0.05, indicating that the variation in reaction time does not have a significant effect on the acid number. Linear regression analysis of ANOVA for the oxidation number concluded that the P-value t3 is less than Alpha (0.047 < 0.05), indicating that reaction time has a significant effect on the oxidation number.

EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF BN REINFORCED AL7079 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are regarded as viable alternatives to conventional materials such as metals, plastics, and ceramics in structural applications due to their properties, including lightweight, high specific stiffness, elevated elastic modulus, enhanced specific strength, and excellent wear resistance. Among the many metal composites, aluminum metal matrix composites (MMCs) have emerged as sophisticated engineering materials for several prospective applications in engineering industries due to their superior qualities compared to typical aluminum alloys. Ceramic particles are the most extensively utilized reinforcements in MMCs due to their superior wear resistance, thermal stability, and exceptional bonding with the matrix. This research work has been conducted to develop ceramic particle-reinforced aluminum matrix composites and to evaluate their physical and mechanical properties. Al7079 alloy and Boron Nitride (BN) are selected as the matrix and reinforcement for the study respectively. The stir casting technique was utilized to fabricate the composites.Al7079-BN composites are prepared by varying the percentage of BN reinforcement particles from 0 to 8% by volume, with an increment of 2%. Test specimens were machined from the produced composites for the evaluation of microstructural, physical, mechanical properties according to ASTM standards. The microstructural analysis of the produced samples was conducted using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The density of the composite was assessed empirically using Archimedes principle and theoretically through the rule of mixture. Microstructural analysis reveals a homogeneous distribution of BN particles throughout the matrix without any agglomeration, and it also demonstrates excellent bonding. The density of the composites decreased by approximately 4.6% with the incorporation of BN reinforcement up to 8%, attributed to the lower density of BN particles. The mechanical properties such as hardness, tensile strength, Youngs modulus, and compressive strength of the composite increases significantly.

Biomass Energy from Agricultural Waste: Evaluating Groundnut Vines and Pumpkin Straws for Combustion Performance

Energy demand has risen significantly in developing countries due to rapid population growth and increase in economic activities such as industrialization, automation manufacturing and digitalization. Dependency on conventional sources of energy in both rural and peri-urban is high. Traditional energy resources lead to environmental degradation due to carbon oxide release leading global warming and deforestation which results to hydrological decline; therefore, need to come up with renewable resources from other sources such as agricultural wastes to meet the demand and solve environmental pollution problems. This study carried out an investigation on combustion and performance analysis of pumpkin straws and groundnut vines to establish their energy potential. ASTM standards were used to determine the proximate and ultimate properties. This analysis revealed moisture content (8.7-12.4%), volatile matter (63-69%), fixed carbon (11.5-18.5%), ash content (6.3-8.2%), Sulphur (0.09-0.13%), nitrogen (1.02-1.03%), oxygen (5.01-55.88%), carbon (41.8-43%) and hydrogen (5.96-6.3%). Calorific values for the briquettes were above 4389 kCal, which is above most biomass. The density and compressive strength were above 0.63 g/cm3 and 17N/mm2 respectively from compaction pressure of 150, 250 and 350 kg/cm2. The burning time was between 4 and 5.3 min, showing an increase with compaction pressure, burning rate ranged between 4.3 and 2.9 g/min, a decrease with compaction pressure increase. The specific fuel consumption portrayed an inverse relationship with calorific value and a direct relationship with compaction pressure, ranging between 166 to 176 grams per litre. Temperature-weight analysis revealed thermo stability of this feedstock, portraying resemblance to proximate analysis. Having exhibited close relationship to other agricultural wastes used for fuel, groundnut vines and pumpkin straws are a solution to environmental degradation by reducing deforestation and emissions. It is recommended that further research on mixing this feedstock with other agricultural wastes as well as making and testing of pellets be carried out to maximize energy output.

Evaluation of Advanced Biofuels in Internal Combustion Engines: Diesel/Fusel Oil/Vegetable Oil Triple Blends

In this research work, the feasibility of using fusel oil, a by-product of the sugar–alcohol industry, as an LVLC solvent in blends with straight vegetable oils (SVOs) and diesel was investigated. Concretely, diesel/fusel oil/sunflower oil (D/FO/SO) and diesel/fusel oil/castor oil (D/FO/CO) triple blends were prepared and characterized by measuring the most important physicochemical properties, i.e., viscosity, density, cold flow properties, flash point and cetane number. An appreciable improvement in cold flow values has been achieved with triple blends, without compromising properties such as calorific value and cetane number. Likewise, the triple blends meet the viscosity and density requirements specified by the European quality standard EN 14214 and the American standard ASTM D6751. After characterization, the triple blends were used on a diesel engine, evaluating different parameters such as power output, opacity, exhaust emissions (CO and NOx) and consumption at different engine loads. The results indicate that as the biofuel content in the blend increases, engine power decreases while fuel consumption rises. Nevertheless, the values obtained with D/FO/CO are better than those for D/FO/SO and are also very similar to those of fossil diesel. Regarding opacity values and NOx emissions obtained with the utilization of the triple blends, they are lower than those produced by diesel. However, in the case of CO emissions, it depends on the type of oil used, with the samples prepared with castor oil exhibiting the best results.

Stress-Strain Behavior of Soft Soil Stabilized with Nickel Slag, Limestone, and Aluminum Hydroxide

Soil stabilization by combining several minerals is a form of material engineering aimed at increasing the bearing capacity of the soil to a higher level. The development of waste-based materials and the utilization of local potential are part of environmentally conscious construction. This study aims to analyses the mechanical behaviour of soil stabilized with several pozzolanic materials derived from nickel processing waste and limestone, which are local materials with very large deposits. ASTM standards were used in this study for both physical and mechanical testing. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were conducted to compare the mechanical behaviour of stabilized soil with that of natural soil. The test samples used were cylindrical with a diameter of 35 mm and a height of 70 mm. The binding materials consisted of nickel slag, aluminium hydroxide, and limestone, with the amount of each material based on the dry soil weight (γdry). The addition of lime in this study was varied at 2%, 4%, and 6%. The test results generally show that lime variations and curing time affect the increase in unconfined compressive strength (qu), with the highest value of 30.91 kg/cm² observed at 6% lime content after 28 days of curing.

Effect of Process Parameters on the Tensile Strength of the Developed Composite of Al 6065 in Stir Casting Process

There are numerous techniques of producing metal matrix composites (MMC) like infiltration, stir casting process, sinter-forging, diffusion bonding etc. Stir casting process is amongst the most known technique to synthesize MMC. In current study an agro-based MMC is prepared by stir casting process using waste eggshell and rice husk as primary and secondary reinforcements and Al 6065 as base material. Process parameters (PP) have a major impact on tensile strength of finally prepared composite. The major factors also called as process parameters in stir casting process that is having a determining impact in tensile strength of hybrid MMC are temperature as well as speed of stirring, duration of stirring and temperature at which the reinforcement is allowed to be poured. The primary aim behind the current work is to evaluate the optimal values of process parameters in friction stir casting process. 9 separate samples have been prepared at different PP for analyzing tensile strength of composite and these samples were machined as per the ASTM standards for performing the test of tensile strength. It was concluded that maximum tensile strength value was found at a stirring speed of 320 rpm, optimal stirring temperature was 630°C and the time of stirring was 25 minutes. At these values of PP, the tensile strength of prepared composite was improved by 35% in contrast to that of the base material.

Mechanical characterization of Al2219-SiC metal matrix composites

The present work conducted an experimental examination to assess the tensile behaviour and microstructural characteristics of Al2219 metal alloy reinforced with 4 and 8 wt. % of SiC composites. The investigation employed the liquid metallurgical method to fabricate composites of the Al2219 alloy including SiC particles at weight percentages of 4 and 8. This work employed supplementary methods, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), to determine the microstructural characteristics. An investigation of the mechanical characteristics of Al2219 alloy with SiC reinforced composites is conducted in accordance with ASTM Standards. Furthermore, the incorporation of silicon carbide particles into aluminium 2219 demonstrates remarkable characteristics in the field of composite materials, therefore augmenting its potential for a broad spectrum of uses. Enhancements in hardness and tensile strengths of the composites were achieved by combining different materials. The fractured surfaces of the Al2219-SiC composites displayed both brittle and ductile fracture characteristics, as indicated by their tensile test results.

Synthesis and Performance Evaluation of Metallocene Polyalphaolefins (mPAO) Base Oil with Anti-Friction and Anti-Wear Properties

Anti-wear and anti-oxidation abilities are two key properties of lubricants that play a crucial role in ensuring long-term stable equipment operation. In this study, we aimed to develop a base oil with good anti-oxidation and anti-wear properties for use under extreme pressure. The as-prepared metallocene polyalphaolefin (mPAO) was chemically modified using the trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (TfOH) catalysis through an alkylating reaction with triphenyl phosphorothioate (TPPT). During the experiments, when the reaction temperature exceeded 70 °C or the concentration of TfOH exceeded 2.67%, the β-scission reaction in the alkylation process became significantly more pronounced. The physical and chemical properties of TPPT-modified mPAO (T-mPAO) were evaluated by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, Fourier trans-form infrared spectroscopy, gel–permeation chromatography, and ASTM standards. T-mPAO showed significantly improved antioxidant capacity, with the initial oxidation temperature increasing by 32 °C compared to the base oil, and it exhibited the slowest increase in acid number in the 96-h oven oxidation test. The tribological tests showed that T-mPAO had the lowest friction coefficient, wear track, and wear rate (72.7% lower than that of mPAO) as well as the highest PB (238 kg) and PD (250 kg) among all tested samples. Compared to mPAO, the average friction coefficient of TPPT-modified mPAO in the four-ball friction test was reduced by 30.5%, and by 16.4% in the TE77 reciprocating friction test. Based on the experimental results, T-mPAO had strong anti-oxidation ability and excellent lubricating performance.The successful synthesis of multifunctional mPAO has enabled lubricant base oil additization, making it possible to use it in more demanding work scenarios, greatly broadening its application scope and making lubricant formulation blending more flexible.

Апробация методики сдвиговых испытаний геосинтетического композита «КАПЛАМ»

Purpose: to investigate the effect of different test methods on the shear properties of geomaterials and to determine the test method that provides the most consistent shear strength results. Demonstrate the need to include shear test methods for geosynthetic materials in state standards. Determination of interaction properties of geosynthetic composite “KAPLAM” with soil. Methods: a 300×375 mm shear machine was used to perform shear tests at the soil-geomaterial interface with normal loads ranging from 100 to 500 kPa. These tests were performed according to the American standard ASTM D5321. Results: the relationships obtained from the tests allow the identification of the test methodology that produces the most significant shear strength results and an understanding of the fundamental mechanisms underlying the observed shear strength. The need for further investigation of this methodology on other geosynthetics is identified. Practical relevance: overall, these results have important implications for the design of railway embankment slopes, ISDS lining systems and shear strength testing. The tests provide better modelling of field conditions and a more accurate representation of the shear strength of composite materials.

Tribological performance of used engine oil treated with cement and celite adsorbents by solvent extraction-adsorption method

Purpose As lubricating oils are used, their performance deteriorates and they become contaminated. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the lubrication performance of reclaimed 5 W-30 a fully synthetic used engine oil (UEO) with wear tests after refining it from a solvent-based extraction method using solvent (1-PrOH) and adsorbent materials such as cement, celite and deep eutectic solvent (DES). Design/methodology/approach The treated oil mixtures were prepared by blending engine oils with various adsorbent materials at 5% (w/w) in organic 1-PrOH solvent at a UEO: solvent ratio of 1:2 (w/w). The measurement of kinematic viscosity, density, the total acid number (TAN) and elemental analysis of oil samples was done by the ASTM standards D445/D446, D4052, D974 and D6595, respectively. Adsorbents and treated oil samples characterized by SEM-EDX, FTIR and UV analysis, respectively. Meanwhile, lubricating performance in tribological applications was evaluated through the wear test device using a rotating steel alloy 1.2379 cylinder and a stationary 1.2738 pin under 20, 40 and 80 kg load conditions. Worn surface analysis was done with SEM and 2.5D images. Findings It was found that when using the combination of cement and celite as an adsorbent in the reclamation of used engine oil demonstrated better lubricant properties. The properties of used engine oil were improved in the manner of kinematic viscosity of 32.55 from 68.49 mm2/s, VI (Viscosity index) value of 154 from 130, TAN of 3.18 from 4.35 (mgKOH/g) and Fe content of 11 from 32 mg/L. The anti-wear properties of used engine oil improved by at least 32% when 5% cement and 5% celite adsorbent materials were used together. Research limitations/implications The paper is based on findings from a fully synthetic 5 W-30 A5 multi-grade engine lubrication oil collected after driving approximately 12.000 km. Practical implications The results are significant, as they suggest practical regeneration of used engine oil is achievable. Additionally, blending fresh oil with reclaimed used engine oil in a 1:1 ratio reduced wear loss by over 10% compared to fresh oil. Social implications Reusing used engine oils can reduce their environmental impact and bring economic benefits. Originality/value This study showed that the properties of UEO can be enhanced using the solvent extraction-adsorption method. Furthermore, the study provided valuable insights into the metal concentrations in engine oil samples and their impact on lubrication performance. The order of the number of the grooves quantity and the possibility of the observed scuffing region trend relative to the samples was UEO > 5W-30 fresh oil > Treated oil sample with the adsorbent cement and celite together. Peer review The peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/ILT-06-2024-0209/

Study the Effect of Adding Malic Anhydride and Carbon Fibers to the Mechanical and Morphology Properties of Polypropylene

Adding reinforcement materials like carbon fibers with maleic anhydride improves the strength of polypropylene. The present work aimed to study the effect of adding maleic anhydride and carbon fibers on the mechanical properties of polypropylene enhanced by presenting carbon fibers. Carbon fibers added at different ratios (0, 2, 4, 6, and 8) % and 1% of maleic anhydride were added to pure polypropylene. Standard tensile and impact test specimens were prepared per ASTM standards using an extruder technique. It was observed that increasing the carbon fiber content enhanced the tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and hardness of polypropylene while the elongation decreased, but it enhanced after MAH addition. SEM and FTIR indicated good adhesion between fibers and polypropylene after adding maleic anhydride (MAH). UV tests showed that carbon fibers protect the composite material from the UV sunlight.

A Novel Investigation on Microstructural Analysis of a Rupture GRE Composite Pipe for Underground Fire Water System

This study investigates how underground fire water systems using Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) pipes are affected by aging. Over time, GRE pipes can degrade, potentially reducing their expected lifespan. The study compared damaged and undamaged areas of pipes to assess how damage impacts their structural integrity. Microscopic and chemical analyses (SEM and EDX) were performed on pipe samples from different locations of the pipe. Mechanical testing (following ASTM standards) was conducted beforehand. Analyses revealed that as damage increased (closer to damaged area), the levels of carbon (C) and oxygen (O) changed significantly with the weight percentage exposed 45.62% difference and 11.62% difference, respectively, as compared with the undamaged area. This suggests that the epoxy resin degrades with age, releasing these elements. Additionally, the presence of foreign objects around the pipes can affect how they bear loads. These findings highlight the importance of understanding how aging and surrounding conditions can influence the performance of GRE pipes in real-world fire water systems.

Studies on a Mobile Acoustic Emission Sensor Verification Device

Despite the fact that there are two ASTM standards, ASTM 1106 for primary calibration and ASTM E 1781 for secondary calibration of acoustic emission sensors, there is no company or institution currently offering calibration services based on these standards due to lack of availability or practical aspects. Another option is CEN ISO/TR 13115, which needs a large volumetric propagation medium leading to similar practical limitations as for the ASTM standards. Many acoustic emission users try to fill the gap of calibration services by using simplified verification standards. However, there is currently no verification standard suitable for using in the field. In that sense, one ambition of the project CalibrAEte is to establish a new standard for primary and secondary calibration that can be implemented in laboratories without a huge invest. Another objective of the project is to establish a verification procedure using a device to verify acoustic emission sensors by a wave-based approach in the field. The proposed approach uses a durable propagation medium that carries the elastic waves from a repeatable source to the sensor under test. This research focuses on such a mobile verification device in the sense that an optimal configuration is proposed. This contribution will present the major aspects and details of an acoustic emission sensor verification setup that can be used not just in the laboratory environment but also in harsh field conditions. It will be shown the performance of the reference sensor developed for this purpose along with the setup itself, which was partially developed by aid of numerical methods. Also, experimental results in different temperature conditions, will be presented to assess the robustness of the setup. It also be presented a sensitivity analysis of the setup using different sensors in different stages of degradation.

Feasibility Study of Rubber Seeds from North Sumatra, Indonesia as Biodiesel Feedstock; Production and Characterization

Abstract There are 5.5 million tons of rubber seeds produced annually on the 3.6 million hectares of rubber plantations that are located in Indonesia. Based on current estimates, 2.4 million tons of biodiesel may be produced if the rubber seeds are utilized as the primary raw material. Rubber seeds are a product of rubber plantations that have not been exploited; to obtain them, there is no need for new land or planting new trees. Rubber seeds are also non-edible, so their use does not conflict with foodstuffs. The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of rubber seed as a raw material for biodiesel and to produce and characterise biodiesel from rubber seed. The rubber seeds that have been collected from smallholder plantations in the northern Sumatra region of Indonesia are peeled to separate them from the kernels. Rubber seed kernels are boiled for 4 hours to separate the sap. Kernels that have been boiled are drained and then dried in the sun for 2 days in sunny weather. Kernels that had been dried in the sun were pressed using a screw press, and crude rubber seed oil was obtained. This crude oil is produced into biodiesel through degumming, esterification, and trans-esterification stages. Biodiesel production was carried out with variations in the catalyst ratios of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1, variations in the ratio of oil/methanol (w/v) of 1:1.25, 1:1.5, 1:1.75 (g/ml), and 1:2, variations in temperature of 50 °C, 60 °C, 70 °C, and 80 °C, and reaction times of 70 minutes, 80 minutes, 90 minutes, and 100 minutes. For each of these variables, the yield of biodiesel produced was calculated. Then the resulting biodiesel is characterised by testing its psychochemical properties against ASTM standards, which include calorific value, oxidation stability, viscosity, density, acid content, cetane number, and flash point. In the experiment on the effect of the amount of catalyst, the largest yield of 85% was obtained when the catalyst ratio (%v/v) was 0.75; in the investigation of the effect of the molar ratio of oil and methanol, the largest yield of 88% was obtained at a ratio of 1.75; the maximum yield of 85% was also obtained at a reaction temperature of 60 °C and 89% at a reaction time of 100 minutes. Almost all of the properties meet ASTM standards, except for the acid value of 0.53 mg KOH/g, which is 0.03 mg KOH/g higher, whereas according to the ASTM D6751-D 664 standard, the maximum acid value is 0.5 mg KOH/g.

CHARACTERIZATION OF ALUMINIUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES REINFORCED WITH SILICON CARBIDE AND NICKEL PARTICULATES

This research article presents the procedure for the fabrication of Aluminium alloy (LM25) based metal matrix composites containing particulates of silicon carbide (10 wt. %) and nickel (0, 5 and 10 wt. %). Using the vortex casting technique, three composites were formulated and characterized as per ASTM standards. Microstructure analysis using "scanning electron microscopy" reveals the uniform distribution of reinforcing particulates within the base matrix without clustering. "Energy dispersive spectroscopy" illustrates the presence of ingredients within the composites. "X-ray diffraction" patterns indicate the formation of mesoporous NiSiAl compound within the composite resulting from internal reactions. The "optical microscopy" reveals the refinement of grain structure with the inclusion of nickel particulates within the composites. The influence of the composition of reinforcing particulates that is, silicon carbide and nickel on the properties of the base matrix was explored. An enhancement in the microhardness, tensile strength, wear resistance and traction force and a reduction in friction coefficient was observed together with a marginal reduction in elongation and the porosity level is also under the controlled limits (<5%).

Experimental analysis of tensile strength of 6-layer carbon/kevlar/epoxy hybrid composite reinforced with nano-graphene/silica nanoparticles

The main aim of the present research is to improve the static tensile strength of Carbon/Kevlar/Epoxy hybrid composite by adding different nanoparticles. To this end, two well-known nanoparticles namely Nano-Silica and Nano-Graphene were considered. Also, the total percentage of adding nanoparticle reinforcing elements to the hybrid composite was considered equal to 1.5%. In this way, five categories of reinforced hybrid composites, including 0%Nano-Silica+0%Nano-Graphene, 1.5%Nano-Silica+0%Nano-Graphene, 1.2%Nano-Silica+0.3%Nano-Graphene, 1.0%Nano-Silica+0.5%Nano-Graphene, and 0.75%Nano-Silica+0.75%Nano-Graphene, were studied. Composite samples were prepared using manual layout technique and tensile tests were performed according to the ASTM standard. It was found that the tensile strength increases with the addition of nanoparticles to the Carbon/Kevlar/Epoxy hybrid composite, but these two do not always have a direct and linear relationship with each other. Moreover, it was shown that the addition of 1.2% silica nanoparticles and 0.3% nanographene leads to an increase of tensile strength up to 36%, and this is the best optimal percentage of additive nanoparticles in this research.

Effect of laser ablation on mechanical performance of graphene-filled glass fibre reinforced polymer repaired composites

Abstract This paper aims to investigate the effect of laser ablation on the mechanical performance of graphene-filled glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) repaired lap joints. The performance characteristics of repaired laminates were measured in terms of surface roughness, tensile strength and flexural strength according to ASTM standards. While the surface morphology was examined using a confocal microscope, scanning electron microscopy was adopted to analyse the laser ablated fibre–matrix interface. The average surface roughness significantly increased with an increase in laser power from 4 to 10 W which was attributed to the presence of graphene and burnt fibres. The laser ablation conditions corresponding to 10 W laser power, 300 mm s−1 scanning speed, 20 kHz of pulse frequency, 0.05 mm line spacing and 5 laser passes lead to the highest tensile strength (36.033 MPa) and bending strength (30.972 MPa) of GFRP laminates. The laser ablated microstructure was characterised by fibre pull-out, epoxy residue, burnt, clean fibres as evidenced by scanning electron microscopy.

Sustainable multi-story building design utilizing recycled marble and ceramic waste

This study explores the design of a multi-story structure utilizing recycled waste materials. Locally produced materials from recycled sources were used for making concrete and bricks. The design of a 10-story building was carried out using ETABS software. In the process, 10% of the cement in the concrete was replaced with waste marble powder (WMP), while the bricks were made by replacing 12% of clay with waste ceramic powder and 15% with waste brick powder. The materials were developed in a laboratory, adhering to ASTM standards, and their properties were input into the software for analysis and design. The results were compared to a structure made with traditional materials. The analysis showed that using recycled materials led to the conservation of 164 tons of cement and 475 cubic meters of fertile clay while maintaining the required stability standards as per building codes. The design also prevented the release of 148 tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and reduced the energy demands associated with cement production. Additionally, the building utilizing waste materials was found to be Rs. 5.8 million more economical than one made with conventional materials.

Exploring mechanical properties of eco-friendly hybrid epoxy composites reinforced with sisal, hemp, and glass fibers

It is now widely accepted that various subsets of hybrid fiber composites reinforced with combined natural and synthetic fibers can significantly expand the applicability of composite-based materials in design and technology practice. The already existing unnatural circumstances on the planet put natural fibers far ahead of traditions in the field of materials thanks to their biodegradability characteristics, availability and over-term endurance and corrosion resistance. At the same time, composites are rapidly taking their place in many industries and sectors of the economy as metals in as much as it is economically and energetically justified. This study evaluates the mechanical properties of hybrid composites reinforced with glass, hemp, and sisal fibers. Using a hand lay-up method with epoxy resin, composite laminates were fabricated and tested for tensile, flexural, impact strengths and hardness test in accordance with ASTM standards. The experimental results revealed that glass-sisal fiber composites achieved the highest tensile strength of 69.1 MPa, while glass-hemp-sisal fiber composites exhibited superior flexural strength of 15.22 MPa and impact strength of 137.45 kJ/m2 while best hardness value was 24.73 HV for glass-sisal fibre composite. These findings underscore the potential of glass-sisal-hemp fiber-reinforced epoxy composites as viable alternatives to traditional synthetic fiber-reinforced materials in automotive industry where there are no structural loadings i.e. automobile interiors; offering enhanced mechanical performance and sustainability.

Comparative Analysis of Biodiesel Produced from Blends of Palm Kernel Shell and Cocoa Pods Oils with Conventional Diesel Fuel: Characterizations, FTIR, GC-MS, XRD and SEM Analysis of the Nano Catalyst

The uncertainty of predicting the conditions of bio oils for the production of quality biofuels and reusability of catalyst, saving cost of production and time, make characterization of the oils/catalyst imperative. Characterization of bio oils, extracted from palm kernel shell and cocoa pods, the blends, catalyst and biodiesel produced therefrom is investigated. A maximum biodiesel yield of 76.05% was obtained at optimal conditions. Titanuim oxide used proved to be efficient catalyst for converting the oil blends to biodiesel. The established results obtained show kinematic viscosity of 5.65 – 7.78 mm2s-1 @ 40 oC, density of 0.8428 – 0.8642 kg/m3, cloud point of 4.48 – 6.48 oC, fire point of 108 – 150 oC, cetane index of 37.78 – 30.13, acid value of mg KOH/g, API gravity of 32.89 – 29, anicidine point of 50 – 46 oC etc. All the values fell within the recommended ASTM and EN standards. The GC-MS, XRD, EDX, SEM, and FTIR analyses carried out to evaluate the quality of the sample with respect to deterioration, gave an ester percentage of 99.9% for the bio-oil and biodiesel, which is within the minimum standard range of not less than 96.5% recommended. The GC-MS of the blended oil shows that the most prevalent fatty acids identified amongst 13 other distinct compounds were methyl linolenate, methyl palmitate, methyl oleate and methyl eicosadinoate with percentage concentrations of 63.03, 26.9, 8.1 and 2% respectively. The XRD analysis confirmed the titanium oxide anatase structure with a peak of 25.4 degrees. The SEM analysis shows high porosity with high specific surface area of the catalyst at magnification of 80 – 269μm; and the FTIR analysis revealed that the functional groups for the bio-oil and blended biodiesel were in range.