Council For Assistance Research Articles

Interconnections in the education–migration–labor market chain in Central and Eastern Europe

This study examines the interconnections between transformations in the education sphere, migrations waves, and labor market in 2000–2021 based on a panel data set for 14 Central and Eastern European countries (7 – former members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance; 5 – former republics of the USSR, and 2 – former republics of Yugoslavia). Statistical data were collected from the World Bank, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, and the International Labour Organization databases. To describe this interconnection, a pool of parameters was formed. Those that cause the greatest variability were selected using exploratory factor analysis: for education – the number of teachers and students in higher education and public spending on education; for migration – the net migration flow, personal remittances sent and received; for labor market –unemployment rate and the share of highly educated people among the employed. Confirmatory factor analysis identified the most influential determinants: for education – the number of students in higher education; for migration – paid personal remittances; for labor market – unemployment rate. The covariance analysis demonstrated a robust direct correlation between education and migration (positive shifts in the education sector serve as a catalyst for pursuing superior employment opportunities or continuing education abroad). A relatively weak direct correlation was between education and the labor market (a more highly educated workforce has only a limited impact on the structure and dynamics of the labor market). Finally, a moderate inverse correlation was between migration and the labor market (deteriorating labor market conditions give rise to migration waves). AcknowledgmentThis study is funded in terms of the projects “Business-Education-Science” Coopetition: Institutional and Economic Models of Innovation Transfer for National Security and Sustainable Development (№ 0122U000772) and “Modelling educational transformations in wartime to preserve the intellectual capital and innovative potential of Ukraine” (№0123U100114).

Теоретичні дискусії про розвиток грошової системи в межах РЕВ (1949–1991 рр.)

The study of the past economic and financial experience of communication between geopolitical and geo-economic blocks has become useful and important today when we are witnessing a growing fragmentation of the global economy, the emergence of new economic blocs based on different ideological and conceptual models of economy and society. Our interest in the Comecon (The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, also CMEA) is inspired by the particular organization of the monetary system and its clearing mechanism. The purpose of this paper is to present and discuss some of the major ideas and views on the development of the collective currency and the monetary mechanisms within the Comecon, which lasted from 1949 to 1991. We also present the evolution of the socialist integration, which emerged as an alternative to capitalist integration as a direct result of the WWII. In the first part, we present the basic principles of socialist integration and the role of international socialist currency. In the second part, we focus on the main stages in the evolution of the collective currency and monetary relations, and some theoretical and practical limits of the transferable rouble. We are interested in finding out why the socialist integration and the monetary system developed within Comecon failed. The leaders of the socialist countries attempted various conceptual models. They encountered the constraints of political and ideological factors. They failed to find a mechanism by which to leapfrog the trapdoor of bilateralism and national planning, despite advances in specialization. The socialist countries were more and more attracted by countries with market and capitalist mechanisms of coordination. We argue that the diversity of experience and ideas could be mobilized in order to find solutions to the challenges in the context of the deepening global political and economic fragmentation.

World War II and Socialist Integration: In Search of the Theoretical Foundations for Building the Socialist Bloc (1940–64)

This article presents the development of ideas on coordination between countries with socialist economic systems during World War II and in its immediate aftermath (1940–64). It studies the theoretical models of Hoselitz and the debates on the possibilities of interaction between socialist states after the war, as well as the first attempts to develop integration within the framework of the CMEA, or the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, in practice. The lack of a clear theory made these processes difficult. Yugoslav economists considered nonequivalent exchange within the Marxist paradigm and attempts to create a monetary zone of the ruble encountered difficulties from the outset. Monetary reforms in socialist countries showed the need to adapt to the world (capitalist) market.

Being Together, Growing Affluence: Institutions of Integration and the Making of Technological Power in the Comecon

The article examines inter-state attempts to enhance industrial development in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon, or CMEA) between the 1950s and 1980s. It studies how state socialism aimed to build a network of economic and research institutions to transform the bloc into a technological leader during the Cold War. Building upon previously unpublished archival sources, this research focuses on cooperation in chemistry through the framework of scientific and technological cooperation of Comecon. This study argues that socialist countries built a complex institutional system for cooperation and integration, yet whose effects were limited by material shortages and inter-state contradictions.

Sovjetsko-Češkolovačka naučno-tehnička saradnja u Hruščovom i ranom Brežnjevom periodu

Economic and scientific-technical cooperation was a popular topic of research for socialist economists and political scientists during the Cold War. Already in the 1950s, a series of studies on the merits of this form of international rapprochement were written up. The outputs of these papers, however, are largely imbued with ideologized reasoning and conclusions. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, historians turned mainly to the study of the negative aspects of intra-bloc cooperation, such as show trials or environmental degradation, and the topic of scientific- technical cooperation became marginalized for decades. The aim of this article is to illustrate the impact, constraints, and evolution of the main currents of scientific-technical cooperation in the Khrushchev and early Brezhnev eras through the case of Czechoslovak-Soviet interaction. Archival sources suggest that it was the period of the 1950s and 1960s that was characterized by a fundamental transformation of the system of cooperation within the Eastern Bloc. The choice of the cooperation partners to be subjected to research is also not random. The Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia were among the countries with the strongest scientific- technical base within the Eastern Bloc, and their R&D activities were to a large extent complementary. The article seeks to propose a new periodization of the development of intra-bloc cooperation, map the main forms and fields of cooperation, and explore its impact on the economy and scientific-technical progress of both cooperation partners. The emphasis is placed on the sectors of heavy industry, nuclear physics, infrastructure, education, chemistry and other areas of science and technology that were of particular importance during the Khrushchev and Brezhnev eras. An additional research task is to determine the extent to which cooperation was implemented because of political and ideological pressures and goals, and to what extent it was a „bottom-up“ activity initiated according to the genuine needs of research and manufacturing. Both micro and macro echelons of cooperation are analyzed to ensure the comprehensiveness of the present study. The first category is represented by individual scientists, technical staff, manufacturing companies and research institutes. At the macro level, the objectives and roles of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, and the industrial ministries of both countries are examined. To achieve a depth of research, it was necessary to analyze a wide range of primary and secondary sources. In this respect, the fonds of the industrial ministries at the Czech National Archives were studied, supplemented by other primary sources from the Security Services Archive, the United Nations Library & Archives Geneva, and the Škoda Auto Archive. These primary sources were then complemented by the findings of both the communist-era literature, and the post-Velvet Revolution studies which offered a depoliticized critique of selected aspects of intra-bloc cooperation.

Some aspects of the socio-economic consequences of informatization of economic management in agro-industrial complex

Abstract In this paper, the socio-economic aspects of the influence of information and communication technologies on the processes of managing the country’s economy in terms of the agro-industrial complex are considered. A brief retrospective analysis of the phased introduction of computer technology into management processes is presented on the example of practical experience in the implementation of informatization of a large agro-industrial holding in the Kuban. These works were carried out within the framework of the task “Electronics of agriculture” of the Integrated Program of the scientific and Technical Program of the member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. At the same time, a systematic interconnection of work was carried out in the areas of informatization in terms of technological processes, organizational and economic management of enterprises, education, the social sphere of the village and agricultural science. It is shown that such a complex nature of informatization turned out to be unrealizable due to serious limitations of the complementary interdependencies of various assets. At the same time, the experience gained made it possible to develop a single digital platform for managing agro-industrial production and can be useful in modern conditions in relation to other sectors of the economy, primarily in terms of the organizational structure of the platform, providing for its scientific and personnel support.

РОЛЬ СССР И ДРУГИХ СТРАН СЭВ В РАЗВИТИИ ЭКОНОМИКИ СОЦИАЛИСТИЧЕСКОЙ РЕСПУБЛИКИ ВЬЕТНАМ (1976-1980 ГГ.)

The article presents a comparative characteristic of the assistance of the USSR and other countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance in the development of the national economy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976-1980. The main directions of economic assistance to Vietnam from CMEA members are analyzed, the factors that influenced the dynamics and effectiveness of interaction between the parties are highlighted. As a result of the study of previously unpublished archival documents, as well as the works of domestic and foreign researchers, the author concludes about the decisive importance of the USSR in the structure of CMEA economic assistance to Vietnam. It is revealed that the USSR was the only member of CMEA, which on a permanent basis carried out significant cash injections into the economy of the SRV, despite the failure of the second five-year plan for the development of the national economy of Vietnam. It is noted that the USSR was involved in the construction of the largest, in comparison with other CMEA countries, the number of large objects of national economy in the territory of the SRV, which determined the dominant position of the Soviet side in the structure of providing the Vietnamese economy with necessary resources. It is established that unlike other CMEA countries, the Soviet Union helped the SRV in the construction of mining and energy industry enterprises, which were of strategic importance for the functioning of the national economy of the country. At the same time, the paper presents facts proving the important role of other CMEA countries in the development of the economy of the SRV. In particular, it is emphasized that the USSR's assistance in training Vietnamese workers was of equal importance compared to the total contribution to this process by the GDR, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria.

Incidence of and risk factors for small vulnerable newborns in north India: a secondary analysis of a prospective pregnancy cohort

Globally, recent estimates have shown there have been 3·6 million stillbirths and neonatal deaths in 2022, with nearly 60% occurring in low-income and middle-income countries. The Small Vulnerable Newborn Consortium has proposed a framework combining preterm birth (<37 weeks of gestation), small for gestational age (SGA) by INTERGROWTH-21st standard, and low birthweight (<2500 g) under the category small vulnerable newborns (SVN). Reliable data on SVN from sub-Saharan Africa, central Asia, and south Asia are sparse. We aimed to estimate the incidence of SVN and its types, and quantify risk factors, both overall and trimester-specific, from a pregnancy cohort in north India. In the GARBH-Ini (Interdisciplinary Group for Advanced Research on Birth Outcomes-DBT India Initiative) pregnancy cohort, 8000 participants were enrolled with less than 20 weeks' gestation between May 11, 2015, and Aug 8, 2020, at a secondary-care hospital in north India. The cohort was followed up across the antenatal period for a detailed study on preterm birth. We conducted a secondary analysis of cohort data for the outcome of SVN, classified into its types: preterm-SGA, preterm-nonSGA, and term-SGA. We estimated the relative risk and population attributable fraction of candidate risk factors for SVN (modified Poisson regression) and its types (multinomial regression). 7183 (89·9%) of 7990 participants completed the study. Among 6206 newborns included for analysis, the incidence of SVN was 48·4% (35·1% term-SGA newborns [n=2179], 9·7% preterm-nonSGA newborns [n=605], and 3·6% preterm-SGA newborns [n=222]). Compared with term-nonSGA newborns, proportions of stillbirths and neonatal deaths within 72 h of birth among SVN were three times and 2·5 times higher, respectively. Preterm-SGA newborns had the highest incidence of stillbirth (15 [6·8%] of 222) and neonatal deaths (six [4·2%] of 142). Low body-mass index (BMI <18·5 kg/m2) of participants at the start of pregnancy was associated with higher risk for preterm-SGA (adjusted relative risk [RR] 1·61 [95% CI 1·17-2·22]), preterm-nonSGA (1·35 [1·09-1·68]), and term-SGA (1·44 [1·27- 1·64]), with population attributable fraction ranging from 8·7% to 13·8%. Pre-eclampsia (adjusted RR 1·48 [95% CI 1·30-1·71]), short cervical length (1·15 [1·04-1·26]), and bacterial vaginosis (1·13 [0·88-1·45]) were other important antenatal risk factors. In a comprehensive analysis of SVN and its types from north India, we identified risk factors to guide prioritisation of interventions. Complemented with risk-stratification tools, this focused approach will enhance antenatal care, and accelerate achievement of Sustainable Development Goals-namely, to end preventable deaths of newborns and children younger than 5 years by 2030 (target 3·2). Department of Biotechnology, Government of India and Grand Challenges India-Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council, Government of India. For the Hindi translation of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.

Development and external validation of Indian population-specific Garbhini-GA2 model for estimating gestational age in second and third trimesters

A large proportion of pregnant women in lower and middle-income countries (LMIC) seek their first antenatal care after 14 weeks of gestation. While the last menstrual period (LMP) is still the most prevalent method of determining gestational age (GA), ultrasound-based foetal biometry is considered more accurate in the second and third trimesters. In LMIC settings, the Hadlock formula, originally developed using data from a small Caucasian population, is widely used for estimating GA and foetal weight worldwide as the pre-programmed formula in ultrasound machines. This approach can lead to inaccuracies when estimating GA in a diverse population. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a population-specific model for estimating GA in the late trimesters that was as accurate as the GA estimation in the first trimester, using data from GARBH-Ini, a pregnancy cohort in a North Indian district hospital, and subsequently validate the model in an independent cohort in South India. Data obtained by longitudinal ultrasonography across all trimesters of pregnancy was used to develop and validate GA models for the second and third trimesters. The gold standard for GA estimation in the first trimester was determined using ultrasonography. The Garbhini-GA2, a polynomial regression model, was developed using the genetic algorithm-based method, showcasing the best performance among the models considered. This model incorporated three of the five routinely measured ultrasonographic parameters during the second and third trimesters. To assess its performance, the Garbhini-GA2 model was compared against the Hadlock and INTERGROWTH-21st models using both the TEST set (N=1493) from the GARBH-Ini cohort and an independent VALIDATION dataset (N=948) from the Christian Medical College (CMC), Vellore cohort. Evaluation metrics, including root-mean-squared error, bias, and preterm birth (PTB) rates, were utilised to comprehensively assess the model's accuracy and reliability. With first trimester GA dating as the baseline, Garbhini-GA2 reduced the GA estimation median error by more than three times compared to the Hadlock formula. Further, the PTB rate estimated using Garbhini-GA2 was more accurate when compared to the INTERGROWTH-21st and Hadlock formulae, which overestimated the rate by 22.47% and 58.91%, respectively. The Garbhini-GA2 is the first late-trimester GA estimation model to be developed and validated using Indian population data. Its higher accuracy in GA estimation, comparable to GA estimation in the first trimester and PTB classification, underscores the significance of deploying population-specific GA formulae to enhance antenatal care. The GARBH-Ini cohort study was funded by the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India (BT/PR9983/MED/97/194/2013). The ultrasound repository was partly supported by the Grand Challenges India-All Children Thriving Program, Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council, Department of Biotechnology, Government of India (BIRAC/GCI/0115/03/14-ACT). The research reported in this publication was made possible by a grant (BT/kiData0394/06/18) from the Grand Challenges India at Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC), an operating division jointly supported by DBT-BMGF-BIRAC. The external validation study at CMC Vellore was partly supported by a grant (BT/kiData0394/06/18) from the Grand Challenges India at Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC), an operating division jointly supported by DBT-BMGF-BIRAC and by Exploratory Research Grant (SB/20-21/0602/BT/RBCX/008481) from Robert Bosch Centre for Data Science and Artificial Intelligence (RBCDSAI), IIT Madras. An alum endowment from Prakash Arunachalam (BIO/18-19/304/ALUM/KARH) partly funded this study at the Centre for Integrative Biology and Systems Medicine, IIT Madras.

Development of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance in the mirror of French foreign policy. 1965–1966

Development of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance in the mirror of French foreign policy. 1965–1966

Economic Diplomacy of Socialism: Participation of Comecon Member Countries in the UN Conference on Trade and Development 1964

In the early 1960s, in the context of decolonisation, the contours of international trade underwent significant changes, leading to the need to review the principles of international organisations in the field of economic development. To this end, the first Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was convened in Geneva in 1964 at the initiative of the United Nations. On the basis of the archival materials of the Russian State Archive of the Economy, which are being introduced into scholarly circulation from the funds of the Office of International Economic Organisations of the United Nations of the Ministry of Foreign Trade of the USSR and the Foreign Trade Department of the COMECON Secretariat, the article examines the basic principles of the practical implementation of the economic diplomacy of socialism with reference to the participation of the member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance in the UN Conference on Trade and Development in 1964. The united front of the COMECON member countries on the key issues of the agenda revealed serious contradictions in the camp of the Western countries and contributed to the strengthening of the influence of COMECON as an international organisation striving to make trade an instrument of economic development and to strengthen peaceful coexistence in the new realities of the post-colonial world order. Thus, the position adopted by the socialist countries during the conference clearly demonstrated the possibilities of economic diplomacy at the international level and gave the Soviet leadership every reason to use UNCTAD in the future as an important platform for defending the interests of the socialist countries, including in the struggle with the EEC for economic influence in the Third World. The development of the theme in question with the inclusion of previously unpublished documents from the Russian State Archive of Economic Diplomacy opens up a number of promising directions for research into the phenomenon of socialist economic diplomacy, and thus significantly expands the source base for the study of various aspects of socialist integration within the COMECON, including the mechanisms of economic decision-making at the international level in the context of interstate confrontation. The academic novelty of this study also lies in the fact that the participation of socialist countries in the activities of UNCTAD has so far received only fragmentary attention in Russian historiography.

ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКЕ СПІВТОВАРИСТВО В ЗОВНІШНІЙ ПОЛІТИЦІ СРСР В РОКИ «ПЕРЕБУДОВИ»

The article examines the process of slow convergence of the USSR during the years of «perestroika» with the European Community, attempts have been made to determine the reasons for the gradual convergence. The purpose of the study is to characterize the place of the European Community in the foreign policy of the USSR during the years of “perestroika” in the context of the concept of «new thinking». It is noted, that the plans for the creation of the internal market of the European Community countries were met with deep concern in the USSR and other countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. It was they who pushed for more decisive actions and played their role in changing the position regarding the EEC. The economic and political transformations of the second half of the 1980s, which were actively carried out in the USSR, met with approval in Europe. It is emphasized, that the economic factor became a new element of policy regarding the EEC during the Gorbachev period. According to the tradition that developed before this, political and military aspects of the process were taken into account the most. The conclusion of the Agreement on trade and economic cooperation with the EEC was the logical consequence of such a change. Economic cooperation with the EEC was included in the foreign policy priorities. It is concluded, that during the period of «perestroika» the relations of the USSR with the European Community underwent drastic changes. These changes were influenced by a number of factors, among which the most important were the ratification of the Single European Act and the development of the EEC program of the single internal market until 1992. The Community’s concrete assistance to M. Gorbachev’s «perestroika» had an undeniable influence on the position regarding the EEC. Another important change, as a result of which the signing of the agreement with the EEC became possible, was a radical rethinking of the concept of interdependence. It happened gradually from ascertaining the development of the processes of internationalization and integration to the recognition of the fact of interdependence between states of different social systems. Only during the period of perestroika did it become possible to conclude the desirability of interdependence as a factor that stabilizes international relations. However, all these changes in approaches were primarily characteristic of a rather narrow circle of politicians. At the same time, they helped to change the official position. It was these factors that pushed M. Gorbachev to develop the idea of a «common European home», which became a component of the concept of «new thinking» in the foreign policy of the USSR.

“Romanian October” Means Breakthroughs and Revaluations in Romania’s Foreign Policy in the First Half of the 60’s of the 20th Century (From the Windows of the Polish People’s Republic Embassy in Bucharest)

After the breakthrough of Polish October 1956, the substantive value of the information contained in the documentation of PPR diplomacy has undoubtedly increased, allowing a better understanding of international relations also between communist countries whose sovereignty was limited. This also applies to the foreign policy of Romania, whose activity in the first half of the 1960s, in the opinion of many historians, led to the country gaining considerable – compared to other Kremlin satellites – independence. The purpose of this article, therefore, is to show, on the basis of surviving sources, how PPR diplomacy perceived and assessed the transformation of Communist Romania’s foreign policy goals, directions and priorities during this period. These eventually led to Romania’s opening up to wider contacts with Western countries, but most importantly to Bucharest’s attempts to undermine the Soviet Union’s dictates in Eastern Bloc foreign policy, through such actions as vetoing Khrushchev’s plans to reform the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance and being cocksure about the Soviet-Chinese conflict. Changes also occurred on domestic grounds, mainly in the cultural sphere, in the form of a programmatic reduction of the influence of Russian and Slavic culture in general, a return to the world of Romanian culture, but also the rise of nationalist sentiment. The diplomacy observing the Romanian transformations and thus the PPR authorities generally supported the de-Stalinization of the “brotherly country” (it was even noted that Romanians referred to their own transition as the “Romanian October”), but were negative about any tendencies that challenged the Kremlin’s dominance in the Eastern Bloc’s foreign policy. The problem, however, was that at the root of the Romanian transition of the first half of the 1960s was also the desire of Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej’s team to avoid a broader de-Stalinization campaign in order to continue in power.

The Long Misunderstanding: Cuba's Economic Ties with the Soviet Bloc

Abstract This article examines the political and economic issues that arose in relations between the Soviet bloc and Cuba from 1959 through 1991, including the admission of Cuba into the Soviet-dominated Council for Economic Mutual Assistance (CMEA) in the early 1970s. The article breaks new ground by consulting previously unseen primary documents originating from the East European states and Cuba, which highlight the often contentious ties between the European CMEA states and Cuba. The East European governments were often dismayed by the egregious economic mismanagement of Fidel Castro's regime and tried, mostly unsuccessfully, to encourage better policies. The relationship that emerged was shaped in part by Cuba's ever-increasing demands, by the East European states’ own economic limitations, and by the Soviet Union's far-reaching political objectives.

Hungary and the Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact (1988–1991)

Abstract After the demise of Communism in East-Central Europe in 1989–1990, the new, non-Communist governments in the region had to consolidate their countries’ independence. The basic institutions of Soviet domination in East-Central Europe—the Warsaw Pact, the Council for Economic Mutual Assistance (CMEA), four large contingents of Soviet troops, and various other mechanisms of intra-bloc integration—still existed, and Soviet leaders hoped they could preserve most of those features in some form. Officials in East-Central Europe soon realized that they would have to take the initiative in eliminating all vestiges of Soviet hegemony in the region. The main impetus came from Hungary and Czechoslovakia and eventually Poland. Acting as a pressure group, they achieved agreement in the first half of 1991 on the dismantling of the alliance's military structures and then, by mid-1991, the dissolution of both the Warsaw Pact and CMEA. This article draws on recently declassified Hungarian, Soviet, East German, and Bulgarian archival sources to tell the behind-the-scenes endgame of the Warsaw Pact.

MAJOR PLATFORMS OF INTER-BLOC KNOW-HOW EXCHANGE IN THE 1950s AND 1960s IN THE CASE OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Through the case study of Czechoslovakia, this article analyses the main platforms through which projects of economic and scientific-technical cooperation between the two sides of the Iron Curtain were implemented in the 1950s and 1960s. The emphasis is placed on mapping the changes that each platform of East-West cooperation underwent over time and on characterizing the impact that these transformations had on the development of international cooperation. In the first place, the role of conferences and scientific-technical societies is examined. In addition, considerable space is also devoted to the rediscovery of the long-overlooked international fairs and inter-company visits that allowed face-to-face contact between experts in the environment of industrial plants and laboratories. The analysis of the role and development of the various platforms of inter-bloc cooperation draws heavily on the archives of Czechoslovak industrial ministries. In addition, the testimonies of individual scientists and experts who participated in international cooperation projects in the 1950s and 1960s provide important support for the article. Although the emphasis of the analysis is on the case study of the Czechoslovak economy, its connection to other member states of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance requires that the Czechoslovak experience be placed in the broader framework of the pan-socialist milieu.

Immunogenicity and safety of a new quadrivalent HPV vaccine in girls and boys aged 9–14 years versus an established quadrivalent HPV vaccine in women aged 15–26 years in India: a randomised, active-controlled, multicentre, phase 2/3 trial

Immunogenicity and safety of a new quadrivalent HPV vaccine in girls and boys aged 9–14 years versus an established quadrivalent HPV vaccine in women aged 15–26 years in India: a randomised, active-controlled, multicentre, phase 2/3 trial

Biotechnology in India - An Analysis of Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC)-Supported Projects.

A comprehensive analysis of 2.165 projects funded by India's Department of Biotechnology since 2005 through private-public partnerships, and as of 2012 through the 'Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC)' until BIRAC's tenth anniversary end of March 2022 reveals details of the science and technology underpinning past and current biotechnology research and development projects in the country. They are led by human healthcare projects (74,9% overall), of which medical technology (58,7%) and therapeutics (24,5%) are the main drivers, ahead of vaccines (4,3%), regenerative medicine (3,9%), public health (3,5%) and others (5,1%). Agricultural projects (15,2% overall) have mainly been driven by plant breeding and cloning (24,6%), animal biotechnology (20,4%), agri-informatics (13,4%), aquaculture (6,1%), and (bio)fertilizers (4,3%). Key components of industrial biotechnology (9,9% overall) have been fine chemicals (44,7%), environmental projects (23,3%), clean energy (18,1%) and industrial enzymes (12,1%). The analysis of projects funded pre- versus post-2017, compared to the distribution of equity funding as of early 2022 identifies trends in terms of growth areas and locations of industrial biotechnology projects and activities in India.

Двусторонние экономические отношения между Россией и Вьетнамом: текущее состояние и перспективы развития

Introduction. The long-living and eventful Russia-Vietnam economic relations date back to the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance. Nowadays the continued deepening of these ties is occurring as part Eurasian integration. Goals. The article seeks to reveal further development prospects for bilateral relations and attempts an insight into the latter’s state of the art. Materials and methods. The work examines data from the UN Comtrade, Bank of Russia, Rosstat, Ministry of Internal Affairs, and those contained in Russian Statistical Yearbooks. Results. The recent years have witnessed a growing dynamics in trade cooperation between Russia and Vietnam. The paper notes it is trade in services plays a significant role in the interstate economic relations. The analysis of investment cooperation reveals an imbalance in investment flows in favor of Vietnam. The FDIs in oil production and trade have been identified as key investment endeavors. As for migration, Vietnam is defined as a donor country, and our analysis of migration flows shows the Russian Federation is simply not considered as a preferred destination for Vietnamese migrants. The article also pays attention to the change in the structure of Vietnam-to-Russia migration flow and articulates some underlying reasons. Conclusions. Despite the intensification of trade relations, none of the countries has implemented its export potential to the full. As for FDI cooperation, textile industry, wind power and IT sector stand out as promising areas. Another area for the development of bilateral relations is educational migration, since there is definitely still room for Russia to increase its attractiveness among Vietnamese youth.

Soviet Coordinators of International Economic Cooperation in the Eastern Bloc in the Period 1948-1953

This article is a discourse on the main trendsetters of international economic cooperation in the Eastern Bloc in the period 1948-1953. Special emphasis is placed on the architects of cooperation between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union, since both countries established themselves as economic leaders after the Second World War and, moreover, developed a number of specific close links between their industries. The article focuses on the role of top officials of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In addition, the paper also explores the role of Soviet advisors who stewarded the economies of the other Eastern Bloc states, both from Moscow and as seconded delegates directly from the ministries and enterprises of the individual members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.