APEC Research Articles

Practice of Human Resource Development Related to Biopharmaceutical Manufacturing and Quality Control and the International Contribution as Centers of Excellence of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation-Life Sciences Innovation Forum-Regulatory Harmonization Steering Committee

In recent years, the development of biologics such as therapeutic antibodies has increased. Around 1980, Japan was the world's leading country in terms of research and development on biologics. However, after that, the development of biologics in Japan has become stagnant. Especially, research and development of therapeutic antibodies, which are critical medical products, is compared to that being conducted in Europe and the United States. The products distributed in Japan are developed and manufactured overseas. Furthermore, related emerging technologies are developed overseas. Therefore, to improve this situation, Biologics Center for Research and Training (BCRET) was established in August 2017 in Kobe city to develop human resources for biologics with the cooperation of Japan Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Kobe University, and related ministries and agencies. BCRET will develop human resources by providing useful information and experience related to the development and manufacture of biologics in the form of classroom lectures and practical training for process and analysis developers and pharmaceutical affairs related to manufacturing, quality control, and approval applications in the biologics field of pharmaceutical companies, along with reviewers and inspectors of Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency and inspectors from countries belonging to Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). This is the first attempt in the world to develop human resources in a field of chemistry, manufacturing and control and Good Manufacturing Practice of biologics for inspectors in countries belonging to APEC, and it is expected to contribute internationally for human resources for biologics.

Tracer-based characterization of fine carbonaceous aerosol in Beijing during a strict emission control period

Strict emission controls were implemented in Beijing and the surrounding regions in the North China Plain to guarantee good air quality during the 2014 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit. Thus, the APEC period provides a good opportunity to study the sources and formation processes of atmospheric organic aerosol. Here, fine particles (PM2.5, particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less) collected in urban Beijing before and during the APEC period were analyzed for molecular tracers of primary and secondary organic aerosol (SOA). The primary organic carbon (POC) and secondary organic carbon (SOC) were also reconstructed using a tracer-based method. The concentrations of biogenic SOA tracers ranged from 1.09 to 34.5 ng m−3 (mean 10.3 ± 8.51 ng m−3). Monoterpene oxidation products were the largest contributor to biogenic SOA, followed by isoprene- and sesquiterpene-derived SOA. The concentrations of biogenic SOA tracers decreased by 50 % during the APEC, which was largely attributed to the implementation of emission controls by the Chinese government. The increasing mass fractions of biogenic SOA tracers from isoprene and sesquiterpene during the pollution episodes implied that their photooxidation processes contributed to the poor air quality in urban Beijing. The reconstructed biogenic and anthropogenic SOC and POC concentrations were 89.6 ± 96.8 ng m−3, 570 ± 611 ng m−3, and 2.49 ± 2.08 μg m−3, respectively, accounting for 21.9 ± 11.4 % of OC in total. Biomass-burning derived OC was the largest contributor to carbonaceous aerosol over the North China Plain. By comparing the results before and during the APEC, the emission controls effectively mitigated about 34 % of the estimated OC and were more effective at reducing SOC than POC. This suggests that the reduction of the primary organic aerosol loading is harder than SOA over the North China Plain.

Participating for Profit: Bilateral-Multilateral Nexus in Indonesian Foreign Policy in the Era of Joko Widodo (2014-2019)

This paper seeks to analyze Indonesia’s multilateral diplomacy under President Joko Widodo (Jokowi)during his first term of presidency(2014-2019). Specifically, this research will be focusing on threemultilateral forums; G20, APEC, and East Asia Summit. Thispaper departs from the puzzle of why Jokowi’s foreign policy seems to be paradoxical; on one hand, the bilateral approach looks very prominent but on the other, Jokowi does not seem to be very keen in engaging in multilateral forums. Using bilateral-multilateral nexus, this paper argues that Indonesia’s participation in multilateral forums is only intended as a means of pursuing short-term interests rather than to contributing to global norms. Jokowi uses multilateralism just as a venue to arrange further bilateral cooperation with potential partners.

Pumped Storage Hydropower for Sustainable and Low-Carbon Electricity Grids in Pacific Rim Economies

Because generating electricity significantly contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions, meeting the 2015 Paris Agreement and 2021 Glasgow Climate Pact requires rapidly transitioning to zero or low-emissions electricity grids. Though the installation of renewables-based generators—predominantly wind and solar-based systems—is accelerating worldwide, electrical energy storage systems, such as pumped storage hydropower, are needed to balance their weather-dependent output. The authors of this paper are the first to examine the status and potential for pumped storage hydropower development in 24 Pacific Rim economies (the 21 member economies of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation plus Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Myanmar). We show that there is 195 times the pumped storage hydropower potential in the 24 target economies as would be required to support 100% renewables-based electricity grids. Further to the electrical energy storage potential, we show that pumped storage hydropower is a low-cost, low-greenhouse-gas-emitting electrical energy storage technology that can be sited and designed to have minimal negative (or in some cases positive) social impacts (e.g., requirements for re-settlement as well as impacts on farming and livelihood practices) and environmental impacts (e.g., impacts on water quality and biodiversity). Because of the high potential for pumped storage hydropower-based electrical energy storage, only sites with low negative (or positive) social and environmental impacts such as brownfield sites and closed-loop PSH developments (where water is moved back and forth between two reservoirs, thus minimally disturbing natural hydrology) need be developed to support the transition to zero or low-carbon electricity grids. In this way, the advantages of well-designed and -sited pumped storage hydropower can effectively address ongoing conflict around the social and environmental impacts of conventional hydropower developments. Noting the International Hydropower Association advocacy for pumped storage hydropower, we make recommendations for how pumped storage hydropower can sustainably reduce electricity-sector greenhouse gas emissions, including through market reforms to encourage investment and the application of standards to avoid and mitigate environmental and social impacts.

Taiwan in APEC

Taiwan joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) as a member economy in 1991 and has since been actively engaged in this regional intergovernmental organisation. Trade facilitation and liberalisation are of importance to the export-driven island. In line with economic reasons, the accession to APEC also helps Taiwan advance its diplomatic goals, which do not aim to challenge China’s seat in the organisation, but rather they demonstrate how interdependent Taiwan and the APEC could be with each other.

APEC Ülkelerinde Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Hava Kirliliğinin Refah Maliyetlerini AzaltıcI Rolü

The main purpose of this study is to determine the possible long run impacts of renewable energy supply on the welfare cost of premature deaths caused by air pollution in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) countries during 1990-2016 by using dynamic panel data techniques. The long run elasticity results showed that the increasing supply of renewable energy sources reduces the welfare cost of air pollution. Empirical findings revealed that clean energy should not just seen as a sustainable energy source but also considered as an efficient way to struggle with possible negative externalities of pollution.

How does biased technological progress affect haze pollution? Evidence from APEC economies

Biased technological progress is the act of energy conservation and emission reduction by changing the marginal rate of substitution. In this study, we introduced renewable energy into a production function, and proposed a method of identifying biased characteristics of technological progress, based on marginal productivity theory. A panel dataset for the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) economies from 2000 to 2017 was analyzed to explore the effect of biased technological progress in reducing particulate matter (PM2.5). We found that input biased technological progress tended to use more non-renewable energy. Input biased technological progress aggravated haze pollution; however, this effect decreased as the PM2.5 concentration increased. Output biased technological progress significantly reduced haze pollution in high-income economies, but increased it in low-income economies. The effect of neutral technological progress on haze pollution was the opposite of the effect from output biased technological progress. We also found that increasing renewable energy consumption and reducing energy intensity were separate effective paths for input and output biased technological progress, respectively, to mitigate haze pollution. For neutral technological progress, improving total factor productivity was an important way to mitigate haze pollution. Finally, several policy recommendations are proposed to mitigate haze pollution in APEC economies.

A Perspective on Energy Consumption Balance: Quality of Life, Governance, and Carbon Emissions in APEC

We estimate the impacts of energy-led growth, quality of life, and institutional factors on carbon emission intensity. Utilizing a balanced panel of 21 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) economies, we show that energy-led growth contributes heavily toward emissions. We also demonstrate that improved transparency help decimate pollution significantly. However, we find that improved human development and employment exert a direct influence on pollution, thus isolating the impacts of growth in the long run. These findings typically demonstrate unsustainable development in the region, thus requiring a complete revamping of the policy framework.

Sleep Health and Road Safety: Continuation of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Sleep Technology Agenda.

In 2017, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Sleep Technology Agenda emphasized the impacts of sleep health on road safety. An official meeting between the Department of Transportation of United States and the International Sleep Science and Technology Association took place in Washington, DC, on February 3, 2020. This was followed by several meetings in Taiwan advocated by the International Sleep Science and Technology Association Taiwan Chapter. We hope to raise the awareness in the government sectors, and to provide the scientific evidence of verified sleep and fatigue-monitoring technologies to avoid numerous tragedies on the road from its root cause.

Oil Consumption–pollution Dynamics in the Asia-Pacific Region: The Importance of Institutional Factors

We evaluate the importance of institutional factors in influencing the emission intensity in 21 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation economies from 2000 to 2019. We show that rising corruption and decreasing governance quality exert positive impacts on pollution in addition to a positive association between oil consumption and pollution. We further note that increasing economic freedom and regulatory standards significantly help reduce pollution. However, the relation between human development and pollution is found to be mixed across our empirical models.

Renewable energy, trade diversification and environmental footprints: Evidence for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

The prime objective of this research is to explore the impacts of import and export diversification and renewable energy on environmental footprints. In doing so, the authors employ the data of trade diversification, income inequality, renewable energy, and ecological footprints for 17 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) countries covering the period of 1995–2019. In econometric framework, the authors use two baseline empirical models based on key indicators such as trade (exports and imports) diversification index, income inequality, renewable energy, and globalization. The empirical analysis from both specifications suggests a cointegrating relation between the key variables of interest. The Long-run empirical estimates from FMOLS, and DOLS methods indicate that income inequality and import diversification increase ecological issues while globalization and exports diversification abate it. Further analysis through Granger causality highlights unilateral causal relationships running from renewable energy consumption to imports diversification, and from ecological footprint to imports diversification. The conclusions of this study stress the importance of harmonic policies, synchronization in trade, energy and resource consumption in achieving sustainable development goals.

Technological business strategies for environmental sustainability among Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) member states: a bibliometric study

The implementation of sustainable development within the member states of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) takes into account business technologies and strategies as key to progress. As such, this paper proposes a methodology for a systematization of the literature that recognizes the importance and growth of the topic over time. It encompasses an analysis of the countries with the greatest scientific output, the most productive authors, and a characterization of the areas and variables researched, as well as some possible future lines of research. The bibliometric analysis was based on a review of 234 scientific papers in the Scopus database. The main results reveal increasing interest in information systems and technologies in relation to environmental problems, with interdisciplinary perspectives to environmental sustainability.

Comparative analysis of application of the teacher professional standard in countries with high indicators of education quality

This article presents the results of a study of teachers' professional standards in countries that consistently perform well according to PISA results, including China (Shanghai), Singapore, Canada (Ontario), Finland, England, and New Zealand. In order to find an answer to the question of what makes professional standards a development instrument of teachers' professional skills, practices of design, implementation, and development of teachers' professional standards were studied. The study included an analysis, comparison, and identification of common and unique features of professional standards for teachers in the leading countries, as well as methodological materials, recommendations, and documents publicly available on the websites of ministries (departments) of education and higher education institutions of the countries studied. Analytical reports, reports, newsletters and methodological materials published by international organizations on professional standards in education and professional development of teachers - World Bank, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, National Center for Education and Economics, McKinsey & Company, SEAMEO INNOTECH, Research Institute of International and Comparative Education, Economic Forum "Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation" were reviewed to study the experience of applying professional standards. The study identified characteristic approaches to the development of professional standards, which allow its application as a mechanism for solving the problems of educational policy of the country (territory); increasing the teacher’s status of and the prestige of the profession; teacher’s career and professional growth; formation of a system for evaluating the teacher’s professional development; formation of ethical standards of the profession. The results and conclusions of the study can be the basis for the development of professional standards in education and modeling the system of teacher growth.

Does export product diversification spur energy demand in the APEC region? Application of a new neural networks experiment and a Decision Tree model

This paper aims to investigate the causal links among export diversification, per capita income, and energy demand for 20 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) countries. Human capital, industry share, and Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) are included within a multivariate framework. Using data covering the 1995–2018 period, an innovative sequential Artificial Neural Networks experiment is developed. Empirical results highlight that the export diversification index negatively affects the neural target corresponding to energy demand. Conversely, per capita GDP displays a significant influence on the acceleration of the same energy target. Hence, findings suggest that export diversification plays a mitigating role in the demand for energy, which is congruent with the literature. Moreover, economic growth is found to be substantially driven by export diversification, while no evidence of a causal effect is found among export diversification, human capital, and FDI. Such inferences are finally corroborated by a Decision Tree model, conducted as a final robustness check. In line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), adequate measures are suggested to improve energy savings along the supply chain, without hindering the economic performance of the Asian region.

DERIVATIONAL AND INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES ON JOKO WIDODO’S SPEECH FOR ENGLISH EDUCATION

This study aims to determine the frequency and process of derivational and inflectional morphemes in Joko Widodo's speech at the Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation summit. The study used descriptive qualitative analysis methods. The data were analyzed using Fromkin's principle. The data analysis yielded 133 terms made up of derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes accounted for 50.37 percent of all occurrences in this study, while inflectional morphemes accounted for 49.63 percent. The researchers discovered several derivation processes that modify grammatical classes while remaining unchanged, such as noun form, adjective form, verb form, adverb form, adjective form, noun to noun, and adjective to adjective. In this study, five types of Inflectional morphemes were found: -s (plural and third-person singular), -ing (progressive), -ed (past tense), and -er (comparative). Morphemes are an important feature of language so it is important for students to learn in school, especially for language learners. Morphological awareness, which we describe as a basic understanding of the morphemic structure of words, is required of the learner. Finally, the implications of this research will be an inspiration for further research in morphological processing, especially regarding derivational and inflectional morphemes.

The relationship between FDI, CO2 emissions, and energy consumption in Asia-Pacific economic cooperation countries.

This paper investigates the relationship between CO2 emissions, energy consumption, economic growth, and foreign direct investment for a sample of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Countries (APEC) countries from 1981:Q1 to 2021:Q1 employing panel data methodology. We identify cross-sectional dependence and hence utilize the cross-sectional augmented Dickey-Fuller panel unit root test for appropriate estimation. The cointegration test developed by Westerlund (2008) reveals a long-run equilibrium between CO2 emissions, energy consumption, economic growth, and foreign direct investment. Long-run parameter estimates based on Common Correlated Effect Mean Group indicate that an increase in FDI inflows has a negative impact on air quality, supporting the pollution haven hypothesis. The cointegration test results also show that the impact of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on CO2 emissions varies by country in the estimation sample. In contrast to the mixed evidence on the effects of other variables, the increase in energy consumption is positively and significantly affecting CO2 emissions in all APEC countries. Emirmahmutoglu and Kose Econ Model 28:870-876, (2011)'s panel causality test results show a bidirectional relationship between FDI and CO2 emissions in Japan. Furthermore, there is a bidirectional causal relationship between GDP and energy consumption in Australia, China, Japan, and Singapore. Overall, empirical evidence suggests that APEC countries should adhere to strict regulations and invest in environmental-friendly clean technologies to attract foreign direct investment.

Developing Computational Thinking Teaching Strategies to Model Pandemics and Containment Measures.

COVID-19 has been extremely difficult to control. The lack of understanding of key aspects of pandemics has affected virus transmission. On the other hand, there is a demand to incorporate computational thinking (CT) in the curricula with applications in STEM. However, there are still no exemplars in the curriculum that apply CT to real-world problems such as controlling a pandemic or other similar global crises. In this paper, we fill this gap by proposing exemplars of CT for modeling the pandemic. We designed exemplars following the three pillars of the framework for CT from the Inclusive Mathematics for Sustainability in a Digital Economy (InMside) project by Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC): algorithmic thinking, computational modeling, and machine learning. For each pillar, we designed a progressive sequence of activities that covers from elementary to high school. In an experimental study with elementary and middle school students from 2 schools of high vulnerability, we found that the computational modeling exemplar can be implemented by teachers and correctly understood by students. We conclude that it is feasible to introduce the exemplars at all grade levels and that this is a powerful example of Science Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) integration that helps reflect and tackle real-world and challenging public health problems of great impact for students and their families.

The Impact of Environmental Regulations on Trade Flows: A Focus on Environmental Goods Listed in APEC and OECD.

This paper aims to investigate the impact of environmental regulations on trade patterns, in terms of trade in environmental goods listed in Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Environmental goods are defined here as those that enable sustainable growth and reduce pollution from human activity. For this reason, issues on environmental goods can be put at the forefront to analyze the linkage between environmental regulations and trade flows in the perspective of international institutions. Within the framework of a gravity model, panel data on 112 exporter countries and 53 importer countries is used at a bilateral level over the period of 1989–2013 to gain an understanding of this trade-environmental regulation nexus. This paper proxies the environmental policies by employing the z-score, which includes three comprehensive environmental indicators. The findings indicate that the strict environmental policies impede the trade, and this effect is greater in terms of the environmental goods listed in APEC compared to the ones listed in OECD. Finally, although these stringent environmental regulations reduce the trade flows, they can help to foster the demand for environmentally-friendly products.

Links among energy intensity, non-linear financial development, and environmental sustainability: New evidence from Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation countries

Environmental sustainability has gained much attention in the recent decade. This study examines the links among energy intensity, non-linear financial development, and environmental sustainability in the presence of economic growth of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) countries from a period of 1990–2016. We apply advanced econometric methodologies for empirical analysis. Empirical results support the presence of inverted U-shaped Environment Kuznets Curve (EKC). Our linear function findings indicate that energy intensity, financial development, and economic growth are positively associated with the ecological footprint. However, these variables are negatively related to APEC countries’ ecological footprint in the non-linear phase. These results support the EKC hypothesis for APEC countries. We found a positive relationship between energy intensity and ecological footprint, indicating that energy intensity is associated with deteriorating environmental sustainability. We confirm a financial development-driven U-shaped link with an ecological footprint at a maximum turning point of −7.9653. There are U-shaped and N-shaped EKC relationships between economic growth and ecological footprint at a maximum and minimum turning point of −8.07029 and 23.5465, respectively. Overall, at the initial stage, financial development and economic growth deteriorate the environment to a point after which it improves. Policymakers are encouraged to advocate technological advancements, address market failure, get the price right by pricing the pollution like carbon pricing, reforming inefficient subsidies, and decouple the links between environmental vicious and economic goods. Study limitations and directions for future research in the area have been discussed as well.

Reforming fossil fuel subsidies requires a new approach to setting international commitments

Reforming fossil fuel subsidies requires a new approach to setting international commitments