The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is a multi-domain cytosolic protein that belongs to the basic helix-loop-helix/Per-Arnt-Sim (bHLH/PAS) family of transcription factors. Ligand binding induces a conformational change in AHR and promotes nuclear translocation of the receptor (Kewley et al. 2004). AHR can either bind to exogenous (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, cigarette smoke) or endogenous ligands (arachidonic acid and leukotrienes, heme metabolites, UV photoproducts of tryptophan) within the cytoplasm. Exogenous ligands such as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and 3-methylcholanthrene are known to activate AHR and mediate cellular toxic response. AHR is also activated by dietary compounds including indole-3-carbinol and flavonoids that mediate various physiological activities in the body (Nguyen and Bradfield 2008; Marconett et al. 2010). AHR ligands are classified as agonists and antagonists depending on the ability of ligands to activate or inhibit AHR induced activity. Previous reports indicate that ligands such as kaempferol, resveratrol, galangin, chrysin and quercetin act either as agonists or antagonists based on the ligand concentration and type of cells induced (Zhang et al. 2003). Thus, diversity of ligands makes AHR signaling a very dynamic and complex. AHR in its inactive state is located in the cytoplasm and forms a complex with molecular chaperones, such as heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) and co-chaperons such as p23 and AHR-interacting protein (AIP) (Trivellin and Korbonits 2011). In presence of ligand, AHR undergoes nuclear translocation where it interacts with AHR nuclear transporter (ARNT) or AHR repressor (AHRR) through the PAS domain. It has been reported that nucleocytoplasmic transport mechanism of AHR varies between humans and mice. In humans, AHR both in stimulated or unstimulated state can undergo nuclear translocation complexed with AIP. In contrast, association of AIP prevents nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of AHR in mice in both stimulated and unstimulated states (Ramadoss et al. 2004). Once AHR is translocated to the nucleus it forms a heterodimer complex with ARNT and binds to xenobiotic response elements located in the promoter region of the target genes. This complex induces coordinated transcription of detoxifying enzymes for efficient absorption, distribution and elimination of xenobiotics from the body (Abel and Haarmann-Stemmann 2010). Apart from this, AHR is known to exhibit endogenous functions such as cell proliferation, cell differentiation and apoptosis. It also acts as an endogenous regulator in several developmental and physiological processes including neurogenesis, hematopoietic stem cell regulation, cellular stress response, immunoregulation and reproductive health (Lindsey and Papoutsakis 2012; Kadow et al. 2011; Hansen et al. 2014). AHR is associated with various pathological and physiological disorders in the body including autoimmune diseases (Veldhoen et al. 2008), inflammation (Podechard et al. 2008; Ovrevik et al. 2014), cardiovascular diseases (Kerley-Hamilton et al. 2012; Savouret et al. 2003) and cancer. Activation of AHR in presence of cigarette smoke has been well documented in lung cancer (Martey et al. 2005; Tsay et al. 2013). Cigarette smoke induced AHR is also known to mediate immune signaling mechanism in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (Chen et al. 2011). Apart from playing an essential role in COPD and lung cancer, AHR expression has been reported in other cancers and adenomas. AHR is reported to be downregulated in growth hormone secreting pituitary adenomas (Jaffrain-Rea et al. 2009), while, increased expression levels of AHR are associated with tumorigenesis in medulloblastoma (Dever and Opanashuk 2012). The enhancement of AHR levels under ligand stimulation induced cell cycle arrest has been reported in pancreatic and gastric cancer (Koliopanos et al. 2002; Peng et al. 2009). Depending upon the type of ligand stimulation, AHR is either known to promote or inhibit tumor progression. Stimulation of AHR with TCDD, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran and 3,3′-diindolylmethane inhibits invasiveness and cell growth in breast cancer (Hall et al. 2010). In contrast, stimulation of AHR with n-butyl benzyl phthalate and dibutyl phthalate ligands enhances tumorigenic properties in breast cancer cells (Hsieh et al. 2012). Therefore, AHR could serve as a potential therapeutic target in several cancers (Murray et al. 2014) and hence it is important to develop AHR signaling pathway to understand the mechanism of AHR mediated tumor progression and regression. Although, the diverse role of AHR is documented in literature however a detailed network of AHR signaling is lacking. In this study, we have curated literature information pertaining to AHR induced signaling and developed a pathway map to facilitate better understanding of this receptor.
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Open Access
Jul 5, 2017
Sunny Y. Yang + 3
