Armenian Highlands Research Articles

Old Data and New Investigations The Urartian and Orontid Fortress of Körzüt in Muradiye Plain, Turkey

This article presents an important archaeological site located on the north-eastern shore of Lake Van, Turkey. The site was one of the first to be associated with the kingdom of Urartu, thanks to the grandeur of its characteristic architecture and the pottery visible on the surface. Körzüt is composed of a vast fortified complex, within which there were certainly a temple, palatine structures, storage rooms, a settlement, and a necropolis. Presumably contemporary hydraulic works have been documented near the site. Körzüt has been the subject of numerous illegal excavations in past and present times, which over the years have brought to light a considerable amount of epigraphic material. This has allowed us to attribute the construction of the complex to King Minua, between the end of the ninth and the beginning of the eighth century BCE. Numerous recent illegal excavations on the site have led to emergency excavations. These investigations have led to the discovery of important remains, which are discussed and contextualised in this paper, together with what was already known in terms of epigraphic and architectural evidence. Furthermore, Körzüt can be added to the list of settlements that were also used in the post-Urartian era in the years in which the Armenian Highlands was dominated by the Orontid dynasty.

Основоположники арабо-мусульманской историографии (IX–начала x века)

The culmination of the “Golden Age” of Islamic literary culture was the multivolume “History of the Prophets and Kings” (Ta’rīḫ ar-Rusul wa-l-Mulūk) by the “father of Muslim historiography”, an Arabic spoken Iranian Muḥammad b. Ǧarīr (Djarir) aṭ-Ṭabarī (839–923), which outlines the general history since the Creation, as well as the works of other founders of the Islamic historiography in Classical Arabic – al-Kūfī, Ḫalīfa b. Ḫayyāṭ (Khalifah b. Khayyat), ad- Dīnawarī, al-Balāḏurī (al-Beladsori), al-Ya‘qūbī (al-Ja‘qubi). The breakthrough works by these authors contain a lot of data concerning the countries and peoples of the Armenian Highlands, Caucasus, Asia Minor, and North-Western Iran (Atropatene-Azerbaijan), as well as adjacent areas of the Mesopotamia, Media, and Syria from Ancient times to the early of the 10th c. These materials may well be of interest to readers of the periodical “Studies in oriental sources” (Institute of Oriental Studies, National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia).

Comparison of CMIP6 model performance in estimating human thermal load in Europe in the winter season

AbstractIn this work, historical simulations of CMIP6 GCMs are evaluated with respect to the ERA5 reanalysis dataset, in order to examine their ability to assess human thermal load in Europe in the winter season. The period of 1981–2010 is chosen for the analysis, and thermal load is expressed via the clothing resistance index (rcl index; expressed in clo). It is found that the GCMs are able to reproduce the areal differences of thermal load satisfactorily, the spatial correlation with the reanalysis is greater than 0.95 in all cases. The effects of the main geographical constraints (latitude, continentality and elevation) are shown by all GCM simulations, as rcl index values are greater at higher latitudes, away from the ocean and in mountainous areas, although GCMs only capture major mountains (the Caucasus, the Armenian Highlands, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Alps). The root‐mean‐square error (RMSE) is around 0.2 clo in all cases, GCMs generally perform better in homogenous lowland areas, while results are less accurate in highlands and mountains owing to the coarse horizontal resolution of GCMs (~1°). The smallest errors occur over central and western Europe and the Mediterranean region, while results tend to be less accurate over the northeastern part of Europe. Biases in the estimation of heat deficit can mainly be attributed to biases in temperature, but biases in wind speed and atmospheric downward radiation seem to be important factors as well.

The Hasanlu gold bowl: an iconographic interpretation of the decoration and parallels in the Armenian Highlands

The Hasanlu gold bowl: an iconographic interpretation of the decoration and parallels in the Armenian Highlands

Climatic variability in the Armenian Highlands as the backdrop to hominin population dynamics 50–25 ka

The impact of Late Pleistocene climatic oscillations, volcanism and the diverse terrain of the Armenian Highlands affected hominin population dynamics and movements through the region. To test different scenarios for the period 50–25 ka regarding expansion, adaptive response, intra-population interactions and extinction, we need local on-site paleoclimatic data found in association with hominin occupations. However, this approach has been hampered by the dearth and highly uneven spatiotemporal recovery of paleoclimatic data from prehistoric sites across the region. In this study, we analyze multiple assemblages of fossil micromammals from the Late Middle Paleolithic (LMP) Lusakert-1 rockshelter (two fossil-yielding strata; <55 ka) and Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) Aghitu-3 Cave (four fossil-yielding strata; ∼39–24 ka) using geometric morphometric-aided taxonomy, to quantify the representation of different species among the abundant and diverse arvicoline genera (Microtus and Chionomys; mean = 58% of assemblages). We combined this approach with quantitative species-level paleoclimatic reconstructions (Bioclimatic Model; 14 rodent taxa) to determine changes in habitat composition as well as temperature and precipitation shifts during the Late Middle–Early Upper Paleolithic. Taphonomic analysis was conducted to establish isotaphonomy among the assemblages. The analysis shows higher than present-day absolute temperatures for the series of occupations at both Lusakert-1 and Aghitu-3, making it unlikely that hominin activity at the sites coincided with extreme cold-climate phases. A multivariate comparison of the taxonomic abundances (genus level) across a wider sample of regional Middle Paleolithic (MP) and Upper Paleolithic (UP) cave sites (Hovk-1, Kudaro-1, Mezmaiskaya, Satsurblia and Dzudzuana) indicates the possibility of cold-period occupation at only two of the sites, Mezmaiskaya Layers 3 and 2 and Kudaro-1 Layer 3. We surmise that the manufacturers of LMP lithic industries in the Caucasus were well adapted to these challenging environments, thus undermining arguments that rapid climate change through the LMP/EUP period could alone have determined the course of population dynamics in this region.

Increasing obsidian diversity during the Chalcolithic Period at Yeghegis-1 Rockshelter (Armenia) reveals shifts in land use and social networks

The newly excavated rockshelter of Yeghegis-1 in Armenia reflects an occupation of five centuries, as attested by radiocarbon dates from ∼ 4100 to 4000 cal BCE in the lowest layer to ∼ 3600–3500 cal BCE at the top. It is a partially collapsed cave in which pastoralists, we hypothesize, wintered with their herds. The stone tool assemblage is predominantly obsidian (92.1%), despite the shelter being > 60 km on foot from the nearest sources. We use obsidian sourcing to investigate two purported trends in the Southern Caucasus during the Chalcolithic Period: (1) occupation of more varied high-altitude environments and (2) more expansive social networks. Our data show both trends were dynamic phenomena. There was a greater balance in use of the nearest pasturelands over time, perhaps linked to risk management and/or resource sustainability. During later occupations, artifacts from distant sources reveal more extensive connections. This increase in connectivity likely played a central role in the shifts in societal complexity that gave rise to widely shared material culture throughout the Armenian Highlands around the start of the Early Bronze Age. In such a model, greater social connectivity becomes a key mechanism for, rather than a product of, the spread of cultural and/or technological innovations.

The environmental and cultural background for the reoccupation of the Armenian Highlands after the Last Glacial Maximum: The contribution of Kalavan 6

This paper introduces the results from our excavations of the open-air late Upper Paleolithic site of Kalavan 6, Armenia. The site is embedded in a sedimentological sequence spanning from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 26.5–19/20 ka) to the Holocene (i.e., from MIS 2 to 1). Our findings are presented together with chronological, environmental, and climatic data. Luminescence dating provides a temporal framework for reoccupation of the Armenian Highlands after the LGM, while two vegetation proxies (pollen assemblages and leaf waxes) characterize the environment. Based on these pollen data, a quantitative climate reconstruction (temperatures and precipitation) is offered. Techno-typological characterization of the lithic assemblages is presented together with the sourcing of the entire obsidian assemblage by portable X-ray fluorescence, providing insights into the occupants’ exploited territories. Such a framework, which incorporates both environmental reconstruction and hunter-gatherer behaviors, enables us to contextualize possible links between population dynamics during the height of the LGM and post-LGM environmental oscillations. We suggest that, during the LGM between ca. 24 and 19 ka, the combination of declining temperatures and the extension of the winter season limited the occupation feasibility of the region. The regional occupation resumed when environmental circumstances ameliorated. These results support our interpretation that temperatures and the duration of the seasons conditioned the past hunter-gatherer's occupation of the region.

METSAMOR - AN ANCIENT CITY OF THE BRONZE AND IRON AGE ON THE TERRITORY OF ARMENIA

The article presents the results of many years of excavations of the citadel, urban quarters and necropolis of the Bronze and Iron Age (second half of the 4th - first half of the 1st mil BC) archaeological site of Metsamor, located in the Ararat Valley of Armenia. The artifacts of this multi-layer monument are of certain importance for comprehensive reconstructions of the military-political, socio-economic and ethno-cultural processes that took place in the territory of Asia Minor, the Levant, the Iranian Plateau and the Armenian Highlands, especially in the middle and end of the 2nd mil BC, and make it possible to talk about a well-organized transit trade in strategic raw materials (tin, gold, copper, iron) and everyday goods throughout the Ancient Near East during this period.

Before the Great States. Caucasians from the Neolithic to the Early Iron Age

This article focuses on the history of the Caucasus and its people from the 5th to the 2nd millennium BC. One of the first significant developments in the history of the South Caucasus was the Kuro-Araxes culture, which united various Caucasian peoples living in the South Caucasus region, Anatolia, northwestern Iran, and northern Mesopotamia. This culture served as an ancestral foundation for the Proto-Kolkh, Trialet, Karmirberd, Kizylvank, and Uzerlin-Sevan cultures. In the North Caucasus, the Maikop and Dolmen cultures were prominent during the Bronze Age. These cultures provided a basis from which the Abkhaz-Adyghe peoples would later emerge. A significant phase in this history was characterized by the North Caucasian cultural-historical community, within which several local groups evolved. Notably, the Kobans maintained close contacts with the steppe tribes, such as the Srubniks and the Kartvelian Colchis. The Western variant of the Koban culture, along with the Kuban metallurgy center, laid the groundwork for the development of the Proto-Abkhazian-Adyghe community. In addition, the Proto-Colchian and Trialetian cultures contributed to the formation of the Kartvelian peoples. The Hattians were associated with the Central Anatolian culture, although limited information is available about them. In contrast, the history of the Hurrians is much better documented. The Hurrians migrated to the Near East from the Armenian Highlands, drawn by Akkadian trade routes. By the end of the 3rd millennium BC, they had begun to settle in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria. The establishment of the kingdom of Mitanni was largely a response to the need to counter Hittite expansion. Before this, the Hurrians were mostly on the fringes of the interests of the Akkadian kings, the kings of Ur, and the Babylonian rulers of the Gutian and Kassite dynasties. Although Mitanni experienced an influx of Indo-Europeans, it fundamentally remained a Hurrian state until its decline in the middle of the 13th century BC. After the fall of Mitanni, smaller Hurrian states emerged, participating in the Assyrian-Urartian wars. The military campaigns of the Assyrian kings during the Middle Assyrian period were crucial to the decline of Mitanni.

Affinities Between Armenian and Persian Linguistic and Literary Forms in the Early Modern Period A Case Study of Two Poems by Grigoris Ałt‘amarc‘i

This paper analyses the poetic form and language of two poems by Grigoris Ałt‘amarc‘i, a prominent Armenian poet from the early modern period, in the multilingual and multireligious environment of Anatolia and Armenian highlands. Through an analysis of the forms, expressions and symbolism found in the poems Tał Astuacatur Xat‘ayec‘un i Grigoris kat‘ołikosē Ałt‘amarc‘oy and Du es aregak, as well as the linguistic data collected from them, this paper explores the stylistic kinship between early modern Armenian and new Persian poetry. It discusses the ways in which Ałt‘amarc‘i navigates the predominantly Persian and partly Turkish languages in the Islamicised milieu, and composed poems with an Armenian affiliation.

Architecture of Medieval Armenia as a Field of Research for Russian and Italian Scholars: Comparative Analyses of the Historiography

For the first time in the literature, this study provides an analysis of the activities of two major architectural–archeological missions that investigated the architectural heritage of the Armenian Highlands: the Russian Ani Archaeological Expedition (1892–1893 and 1904–1917) and the Italian academic programs of the Universities of Rome and Venice and that of Milan Polytechnic (from 1966 to the 1980s). In this article, the results of the conducted research are compared, and their contribution to the development of the history of medieval architecture is evaluated. The differences in the results are related to the chronological distance between the missions, as well as the main focus of each work: the activities of the Russians are primarily archeological, while those of the Italian groups are architectural. The head of the Ani Institute, Nikolay Marr, set himself the task of exhibiting the original artifacts in the museum he had created in the medieval capital of Armenia, Ani, while the Italian professors relied on photography for both permanent and touring exhibitions. The second mission was in unspoken contact with the first, forming a kind of time-stretched dialog. Although, by the 1970s, almost none of the participants in Marr’s expedition remained alive, his scientific works were periodically being published, with some still waiting their turn in the scientific archives.

Exploring mudbrick architecture and its re-use in Artaxata, Armenia, during the 1st millennium BC. A multidisciplinary study of earthen architecture in the Armenian Highlands.

Mudbrick constructions are extremely common in ancient western Asia, including the 1st millennium structures of the southern Caucasus and Armenian highlands. However, in the Caucasus the geoarchaeological study of these materials to provide insight into building practices and social structure is a topic little researched, especially when focusing on the longue durée. Artashat/Artaxata (Ararat region, Armenia) was the capital of the Armenian Kingdom of the Artaxiads, founded in the eighties of the 2nd century BC, but even before this the site was occupied in the Chalcolithic period, (ca. 5200-3500 BC), Early Iron Age (ca. 1200-900 BC) and in the Urartian period (ca. 800-600 BC) as well. All the previous occupation phases showed communities that made extensive use of earthen constructions as determined during past and recent archaeological excavations. This multidisciplinary study seeks to examine mudbrick architecture as a proxy for environmental and social interactions during the 1st millennium BC combining geoarchaeology, archaeobotany and building archaeology. We analyzed changes and continuities in architectural form and practices, alongside reconstruction of technological and social processes, to identify issues of raw material procurement, attestation of re-use, and consistency of building practices. The results of the geoarchaeological analysis of the earthen building materials used in different parts of the ancient city point to a re-use of materials over time.

Palaeoenvironmental and chronological context of hominin occupations of the Armenian Highlands during MIS 3: Evidence from Ararat-1 cave

Archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence from the Armenian Highlands and wider southern Caucasus region emphasises the significance of Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 3 (c. 57–29 ka) as a crucial period for understanding hominin behaviours amidst environmental fluctuations. Ararat-1 cave, situated in the Ararat Depression, Republic of Armenia, presents potential for resolving emerging key debates regarding hominin land use adaptations during this interval, due to its well-preserved lithic artefacts and faunal assemblages. We present the first results of combined sedimentological, geochronological (luminescence and radiocarbon), archaeological and palaeoecological (macrofauna, microfauna and microcharcoal) study of the Ararat-1 sequence. We demonstrate sediment accumulation occurred between 52 and 35 ka and was caused by a combination of aeolian activity, cave rockfall and water action. Whilst the upper strata of the Ararat-1 sequence experienced post-depositional disturbance due to faunal and anthropogenic processes, the lower strata remain relatively undisturbed. We suggest that during a stable period within MIS 3, Ararat-1 was inhabited by Middle Palaeolithic hominins amidst a mosaic of semi-arid shrub, grassland, and temperate woodland ecosystems. These hominins utilised local and distant toolstone raw materials, indicating their ability to adapt to diverse ecological and elevation gradients. Through comparison of Ararat-1 with other sequences in the region, we highlight the spatial variability of MIS 3 environments and its on hominin land use adaptations. This demonstrates the importance of the Armenian Highlands for understanding regional MP settlement dynamics during a critical period of hominin dispersals and evolution.

SCYTHIAN TRIBES OF THE PHASIANS AND ASII IN THE ARMENIAN HIGHLAND AND CENTRAL ASIA

Xenophon’s data about the ethnic composition of Armenia has been repeatedly examined in the professional literature, and the researchers have often expressed opposing opinions about the ethnogeographical realities of Ancient Armenia. We have touched upon these issues, too, which allowed us to examine the information given by Strabo that caused disagreements. The examination of the ancient sources shows that a part of the tribe called Iranian Phasians lived in the vicinity of the present-day city of Poti in Western Georgia, and Armenian Phasians were located in the upper courses of the Yeraskh River and the sources of the Ułtis River. The existence of Phasians in the north indicates that the Phasians established in Armenia having moved from the Caucasus and most likely settled in Anpayt Basean initially, gradually spreading to the south, to Basean, firmly retaining their name in the canton name. During their invasions the Scythian tribes also settled in different parts of Armenia: the Phasians in the canton of Basean, and the so-called Asii Scythians in the canton of Aseatspor. Moreover, the Asian Asii and Pasiani indicated by Strabo can be considered the Central Asian branch of the Asii and Phasians mentioned in Armenia. What is important both in Xenophon’s and Strabo’s accounts is that the mentioned tribes are mentioned side by side, with almost the same names, and are considered the Scythian people. During the Scythian invasions, the Scythian Asii and Phasiani tribes, settled in the Armenian Highland had already assimilated with the Armenians by the end of 5th century BC and kept their name only in geographical names. As for Strabo’s information about the Central Asian Asii and Pasiani tribes, these were also Scythian tribes and some part of them lived in Armenia, Western Georgia and the North Caucasus

Migrations In The Armenian Highland

Migrations In The Armenian Highland

Neotectonics and Geological Structure of the Sevan Intermountain Basin (Armenia): New Structural and Paleontological Data

The article presents new data obtained as a result of field research in 2022 Sevan intermountain depression in Armenia. The emergence of the Sevan intermountain depression in the Miocene was associated with the development of the Sevan almond-shaped structure, bounded by the right-lateral Pambak‒Sevan‒Syunik fault zone in the northeast, the Garni zone in the south, and the Arpa‒Zangezur zone in the southwest. Within the Sevan almond-shaped structure, strike-slip structures of Small Sevan (western part of Lake Sevan) and Gavar almond-shaped structure, Gavar horst, a number of faults, as well as extension zones were formed, including the southern part of Greater Sevan (eastern part of Lake Sevan) and axial zone of the Geghama Range. The development of the Sevan intermountain depression continued in the Pliocene under the influence of the uplift of the Lesser Caucasus and the Armenian Highlands. We have summarized the available data on the geological structure and geodynamics of the Sevan intermountain depression, presented the obtained data on the stratigraphy of the Pliocene–Quaternary deposits and their position, and showed that during the Akchagyl transgression at the Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary, sedimentary accumulations did not occur in the Sevan intermountain depression.

On a Painted Burial Jar from Tigranakert of Artsakh

Abstract The article is devoted to one of the jar burials discovered in 2018 during excavations of the Eastern tomb field of Tigranakert of Artsakh. That is a gorgeous painted karas with ornamental and figurative bands of various motifs painted in red on a light background. The central and widest part of the vessel bears a depiction of a deer hunting scene happening on both sides of a dense tree with scattered branches. An infantryman and two horsemen armed with long spears and accompanied by hunting dogs, chase a doe and a deer. Hunting scene has been popular and widespread since ancient times. Deer hunting scene is found among the petroglyphs of the Armenian Highlands, on the bronze belts and other decorative-applied works of art from the ancient sites of Armenia and neighboring countries. This theme is especially prevalent in Achaemenid glyptic, in the fine arts of the Classical period, and in the toreutics of the Sasanian period.

Karyo-geographical analysis of Armenian flora

Approximately 3,800 species of vascular plants have been registered in the flora of Armenia, of which 789 chromosome numbers are known. Additionally, many species have several cytoraces in Armenia (a total of 898 cytoraces were recorded). These species were analysed from a phytogeographical point of view. Their distribution by floristic regions of the republic, altitudinal zones, and vegetation type has been revealed. Geographical elements were established based on general distribution. As a result of the analysis, it was found that Armenian flora was formed over a long period, starting from the Tertiary period, and is composed of nearly equal proportions of migrants from the Boreal and Ancient Mediterranean sub-kingdoms, and species formed on the Armenian Highlands and on the Greater Caucasus. A significant percentage of endemics (mainly neoendemics) indicate that the territory of Armenia is also an arena of intensive formation and speciation. At the same time, a large karyological diversity among species whose distribution is confined to the Ancient Mediterranean or its several parts, including the Armeno-Iranian province, indicates that speciation took place in these territories. The “northern root” species, Boreal and Caucasian, came to Armenia mainly in the form of karyologically stable cytoraces.

SCIENTIFIC AND POLITICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF TEXTBOOKS ON HISTORY (objective history vs falsification)

This article presents the process of creating new school textbooks on Armenian history in the post-Soviet years. The author emphasizes the necessity to revise a number of issues in Armenian historiography related to the ideological attitudes of the Soviet epoch. The revision of many issues by Armenian historians during the years of independence, such as periodization, the first state formations on the territory of the Armenian Highlands, the Armenian political parties, the First Republic of 1918-1920, Sovietization, etc., is reflected in the new history textbooks. The article provides examples of the distortion of Armenian and Russian history in various textbooks and emphasizes the importance of presenting the objective history in school textbooks for educating the younger generation.

Archaeological evidence for two culture diverse Neanderthal populations in the North Caucasus and contacts between them.

Neanderthals were widespread during the Middle Palaeolithic (MP) across Europe and Asia, including the Caucasus Mountains. Occupying the border between eastern Europe and West Asia, the Caucasus is important region regarding the Neanderthal occupation of Eurasia. On current radiometric estimates, the MP is represented in the Caucasus between about 260-210 ka and about 40 ka. Archaeological record indicates that several culture diverse MP hominin populations inhabited the Caucasus, but the region complex population history during this period remains poorly understood. In this paper, we identify for the first time the archaeological evidence indicating contacts between two culture diverse MP Neanderthal populations in the North Caucasus and discuss the nature of these contacts. Basing on the lithic assemblages that we excavated at Mezmaiskaya cave in the north-western Caucasus (Kuban River basin) and Saradj-Chuko grotto in the north-central Caucasus (Terek River basin), dating from MIS 5 to MIS 3, and comparative data from other MP sites in the Caucasus, we identify two large cultural regions that existed during the late MP in the North Caucasus. The distinctive toolkits and stone knapping technologies indicate that the MP assemblages from Mezmaiskaya cave and other sites in the west of North Caucasus represent a Caucasian variant of the Eastern Micoquian industry that was wide spread in central and eastern Europe, while the assemblages from Saradj-Chuko Grotto and other sites in the east of North Caucasus closely resemble the Zagros Mousterian industry that was wide spread in the Armenian Highlands, Lesser Caucasus and Zagros Mountains. The archaeological evidence implies that two culture diverse populations of Neanderthals settled the North Caucasus during the Late Pleistocene from two various source regions: from the Armenian Highlands and Lesser Caucasus along the Caspian Sea coast, and from Russian plain along the Sea of Azov coast.