Armenian Highlands Research Articles

Топоры как товаро-деньги в контексте их ритуального и социального значения

During its history, money has undergone a complex evolution due to historical and cultural transformations in the different periods. Money as medium of account and exchange arose in the Neolithic era simultaneously with the new stage of social-economic relations, when the surplus of products takes on a commodity form and the barter exchange developed. In the Early Bronze Age (III millennium BC) the first statements arose, bronze and precious metals appeared in Western Asia including the Armenian Highland. At the same time measurement of weight was created in Mesopotamia, money expressed in metal objects became not only a price equivalent, but also medium of payment. The axe, as the most important tool and weapon, acquires the significance of money. Therefore, the Sumer/Akkadian shekel, which was the widespread unit of currency in Near East, originates from the word “axe”.

Middle to late Holocene lake level changes of Lake Sevan (Armenia) – Evidence from macro and micro plant remains of Tsovinar-1 peat section

In the Caucasus, peat deposits exposed near Lake Sevan (Armenia) provide a Middle to Late Holocene record of lake level fluctuations. The Tsovinar-1 section at the southern shore of Lake Sevan in the Armenian Highlands reveals a well-dated and divers pollen and carpo-flora covering a time span from 6000 BC to 900 AD. The abundances of pollen of forest taxa in relation to steppe vegetation indicate climatic changes through time. In parallel, the presence and number of fossils of aquatic and wetland plants, both in micro and macro floras, provide information about the presence of water and allows estimating changes of water depth. Characteristic taxa pointing to deeper water at Tsovinar-1 are Myriophyllum sp., Ceratophyllum demersum, and several species of Potamogeton. In shallow water, Persicaria amphibia,Sparganium sp., and Typha sp. dominate. In fluctuating water and wetlands those plants are replaced by Menyanthes trifoliata, Ceratophyllum submersum, Alisma sp., and others. High lake levels can be inferred at 6000−5000 BC, 1700−900 BC and 200−900 AD and are associated with humid climate and the development of forest vegetation. Low lake levels occurred at 4000−2600 BC and 600 BC−100 AD corresponding to epochs of decreased humidity and expanded steppe vegetation. Macro and micro remains of plants from the Tsovinar-1 site serve as reliable sources of information for determining environmental changes over time, which are in accordance with archaeological data from the region showing the effects of lake level changes on human activities․

Geodynamics of source zones of strong earthquakes in Armenia

The purpose of the presented work is to determine and evaluate changes in the geodynamic characteristics of the strong earthquake source zone in the Javakheti highlands and central Armenia. The migration of source zones of strong earthquakes is given. A certain pattern has been revealed in the occurrence of destructive earthquakes in the territory of the Armenian Highlands. Active faults and fault zones of the territory of Armenia have been identified. The sources of strong earthquakes are studied according to seismicity data: seismogeodynamics of source zones and their relationship with the occurrence of strong earthquakes. The geodynamic conditions of source zones of strong earthquakes are estimated from the seismicity data of these zones in connection with the occurrence of strong tectonic movements and taking into account stress and strain fields. The periods of seismic calm, the features of changes in the level of groundwater and chemical composition in connection with the preparation of earthquakes are considered. Based on the block structure of the earth’s crust of the territory of Armenia, the dynamic parameters of the blocks of the earth’s crust (deformation, stress state) are determined. The geodynamics of strong earthquake source zones in the north and in the middle parts of Armenia, where an increase in seismic activity of these parts of the region has been observed in recent years, has been identified and studied. The seismic geodynamics is substantiated on the basis of data from the study of modern movements of the earth’s crust and in the historical past, which gives an idea of the dynamics of physical processes occurring in the source zones of earthquakes. A group of mineral water deposits, which is particularly sensitive to seismic events, has been identified. An estimate of the information content of the observational hydrogeodynamic network of Armenia is given. The geodynamic activity of the zone of sources of strong earthquakes in the Javakheti Highlands of the territory of Armenia has been revealed. A seismological section was built along the strike of rocks in order to determine the direction of migration of earthquake sources in the northern part of the region of Armenia.

Iconographical, Symbolical, and Technical Features of Cover-Curtains with Central Round Medallions Executed in Marash Embroidery

This article observed cover-curtains with round central medallions executed in Marash “secret stitch embroidery”. Most iconographic and symbolic details of the ornaments and their manner of execution and expressions are compared and discussed. Close observations related to the fabrics, threads and their color solutions, used to make these cover-curtains, are discussed as well. These covers or rug-like textiles preserved the ancient symbolic decorative elements that had existed in the Armenian Highlands for millennia. With their unique iconography and symbology, these covers developed throughout the Middle Ages and became an inseparable and important part of other art forms known in Armenian culture. As rugs, these covers were displayed in the Armenian home as a blessing and an evil preventing charm for the entire family.

Assessment of Ecological and Toxicological State of Soils and Waters in the Neighborhood of Mining Industry Enterprises in the Armenian Highlands

The article presents the results of the seven-year study on the state of arable lands and wastewaters in the districts of mining enterprises in Armenia. An assessment of the ecological and toxicological state of wastewaters and contaminated areas was carried out. Methods for their purification are proposed aimed at their further use and obtainment of environmentally safe agricultural products. An area of about 0.5 ha, next to the rural community of Syunik in southern Armenia, has been polluted for many years by mining sludges from the nearest mine watertight cofferdam of the Zangezur copper-molybdenum combine. Activities have been carried out to clean up the soil in this area. After plowing, soil improvers (zeolite, bentonite, and manure) were introduced into the soil. On-site treatments, soil tillage, and the introduction of soil improvers into the soil was implemented in late autumn. Soil and plant samples were taken to determine the content of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Co, Mo, Ni). In the following spring, the area was planted with potatoes, eggplant, and peas. A rather high yield was obtained. Analysis of plant samples showed that the content of heavy metals does not exceed the permissible level of the international food safety standard. At the same time, soil studies were carried out in the adjacent areas of the Sotk mine, located to the southeast of Lake Sevan. It was revealed that due to the increase in the volume of the mining industry and the amount of rock dumps, the organoleptic and chemical indicators of the waters of the Sotk and Masrik rivers deteriorated. Compared to the previous decade, the amounts of suspended particles per 1 L of water have increased by 210…317.0%, in the waters of Sotk-by 32.1 mg/L, and in the waters of Masrik-by 13.2 mg/L. The same tendency is observed regarding the amounts of nitrates, sulfates, and hydrogen index, which is mainly due to the chemical composition of rocks. They contain a large amount of Ca, K, Na, Mg, etc. This trend is especially noticeable along the rivers, where intensive agriculture, primarily livestock farming is carried out. The material of the work solves a complex of environmental and economic problems. It is aimed at ensuring environmental safety, improving the ecological and resource properties of soils, increasing the productivity of cultural phytocenoses and the sanitary and hygienic quality of food products.

ՎԱՍՊՈՒՐԱԿԱՆՑԻ ՈՍԿԵՐԻՉՆԵՐԸ (19 - 20-րդ դդ.) / JEWELLERS OF VASPURAKAN (19th - 20th Centuries)

Vaspurakan’s jewellery carries the traditions of Armenian art in general and directly continues the culture of Van or Ararat Kingdom, which in its turn was the continuation of the Bronze Age rich art. Archaeological materials and written sources show the development and the variety of the ancient jewellery art in the Armenian Highland and the localities of the archaeological discoveries (temples, palaces, fortresses tombs, etc.) show the ways they were used. Different historians provide valuable information about the medieval jewellery of Vaspurakan. The ritual objects and the covers of handwritten and printed religious books also show the high level of the skillful masters. The clergymen also were engaged in jewelry making over the centuries. In the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the products of Van masters were distributed in Turkey and exported to Europe, Africa and America. The jewellers used various techniques such as casting, stamping, filigree, double threading, embossing, granulating, engraving, gilding, niello, etc. Although niello was known from very early times, it began to be widely used from 1860 - 1870’s, then passed to the Caucasus and from there to Russia. The master jewellers of Van have always been known for their talent, and they always taught, transfered and spread their skills wherever they lived. The descendants of Vaspurakan jewellers are still working in Armenia and in different countries of the world.

Արևմուտքը՝ մեր ազգային ողբերգության համատեքստում / West in The Context of our National Tragedy

The Armenian people are deeply rooted in the Armenian Highlands and the East. They are characterized by their traditionalism, love for nature, and emotional disposition. Their culture is one of the heart, marked by empathy for others, sharing their joys, and feeling their sorrows. The man of the East does not claim to be recognized by the world or by others. That is why the genius Tumanyan, whose native element was the East, noted that we know neither ourselves, nor our neighbors... The West perceives the world exclusively with the reason. The main thing here is not the person, but the technique. Everything here is calculated based on profit. Here people do not live with other's problems. Western civilization follows a different spiritual path that relies on reason, professes different moral, ethical and cultural values that derives from rational egoism. Each of these is valuable in its own way. However, the concept of "barbarian East and civilized West", created by Herodotus and Aristotle, was further elaborated by Sh. Montesquieu's "On the Spirit of Laws" and the works of A. de Tocqueville, eventually shaping public perception. Following the invasions of Alexander and, especially, the adoption of Christianity as a national identity, our focus shifted westward, towards Europe. We, who once fought together with the East against the West, became carriers and promoters of Western values in the East. The East began to percieve us as outsiders. The West never considered us allies and did not advocate for us despite our role in spreading the Western culture and values in the East. Through numerous examples, the author attempts to justify that our loss of statehood, all our big and small tragedies stemmed from our wrong and unjustified orientation towards the West. We often overlooked the fact that the West has its own geopolitical interests, with no inclination to support the existence of a sovereign Armenia, let alone a powerful state. Unfortunately, with the same persistence, we repeat the same mistake today seeking support from the West instead of our natural allies.

ՃԱՆԱՊԱՐՀԱՅԻՆ ՑԱՆՑԻ ԳՈՐԾԱՐԿՈՒՄԸ ԲՐՈՆԶ-ԵՐԿԱԹԵԴԱՐՅԱՆ ՍՅՈՒՆԻՔՈՒՄ՝ ԽՈՇՈՐ ԲՆԱԿԱՎԱՅՐԱՅԻՆ ԱԳԼՈՄԵՐԱՑԻԱՆԵՐԻ ԳՈՅՈՒԹՅԱՆ ՊԱՅՄԱՆՆԵՐՈՒՄ (ՀԱՅ.) / THE FUNCTIONING OF THE ROAD NETWORK IN SYUNIK CONDITIONED BY EXISTENCE OF LARGE SETTLEMENT AGGLOMERATIONS DURING THE BRONZE AND IRON AGES

Since the 2nd millennium BC, in the Armenian Highlands and, in particular, in the Syunik- Artsakh region, a system of regions separated by natural boundaries is being formed. These settlement systems included a central fortified settlement, satellite settlements of an open type, economic and ideological infrastructure. Thus, a multifunctional complex was being formed, including fortification systems, economic and religious complexes. Naturally, the functioning of such complexes would be impossible without the existence of stationary means of communication. The roads connected not only separate areas of the Syunik region, but were also laid in the direction of high mountain pastures. The protection of the roads was carried out both by the construction of fortresses and watchtowers along the roads, and in the sense of sacred protection: i.e., location of cemeteries and places of worship along the roads. The functioning of an extensive road network ensured the viability of large settlement agglomerations, and also contributed to the formation of unions and confederations.

Vertical use of space in Ancient Armenia and the case of Kura-Araxes tradition

Human imaginations of geographical environment and its components played essential role in the process of identity formation of early societies. Depending on the natural environment, each society created a unique value system, developing and modeling it in time and space. In this sense, it is not accidental, that in the modern discourse on ancient social processes the issue of interaction of different elements of the human habitat gains special importance. Moreover, it gradually has become one of the main topics of interest within disciplines studying the human past. In this contribution an attempt is made to consider the Armenian Highland, in particular present-day Armenia, from the mentioned perspective by emphasizing the early cultural developments in context of the vertical use of space.

Feminine figurine of Shengavit and its parallels

It is widely believed that anthropomorphic, especially feminine images are characteristic to early agricultural cultures. Unlike Mesopotamia, anthropomorphic statues are not very common in the Armenian Highlands. The present article discusses female figurines of Shengavit culture of Early Bronze Age with particular case from the settlement Shengavit. Our inquires demonstrate, that some feminine figurines are shaped in a generalized-realistic way, and some in a schematic-symbolic style. Feminine figurines have been found in dwellings, in hearthsand around them, sometimes also in ritual structures. They are mostly depicted nude. The female figurines were probably used during ritual ceremonies, which, apparently, took place around the hearths. During these ceremonies, the limbs of the figurines - arms and legs, sometimes the body and the head - were dismembered. Female statuettes with animal heads probably symbolized and at the same time attributed to the symbolic features of the animal. Female statues symbolized fertility and maternal deities, which were used in rituals.

First Haykides And The “House Of Torgom” (Some comments on the problem)

In the article is discussed the “Torgomian” hypothesis of the Armenian ethnogenesis in regard to which until now scholars could not arrive at consensus. The study of various sources (written - cuneiform Hittite, Assyrian, Urartian, Hieroglyphic Luwian, classical Greek, linguistic, archaeological, mythological, etc.) points on the historical context in the history of the Armenian Highland which could fit our information drawn by Khorenatsi for the period of the First Haykides. Definitely, that period should be characterized by 1) the absence of considerably big political organization in the Highland, 2) the absence of more or less durative Assyrian control over several political entities in the south, 3) mobility of population.

Possible Preventive Effect of <i>Ziziphora clinopodioides</i> Lam. Essential Oil on Some Neurodegenerative Disorders

The present article describes some characteristics of the effect of essential oil (EO) extracted from <em>Ziziphora clinopodioides</em> harvested from Armenian highlands on microglial cell lines (BV-2 wild-type (WT) and acyl-CoA oxidase1 (ACOX1)-deficient (<em>Acox1</em><sup>–/–</sup>) cells). The mutant cell line was used as a model to investigate cellular oxidative damage following EO treatment. The main components of the tested EO were pulegone, isomenthone, 1,8-cineole, piperitone, and neomenthole, with concentrations of 42.1%, 9.7%, 8.22%, 7.35%, and 5.9%, respectively, in plants harvested from the high-altitude Armenian landscape. The IC<sub>50</sub> value of the EO in the DPPH assay was 7.025 uL/mL. The sub-cytotoxic concentrations (based on the MTT assay) for both cell lines were 5 × 10<sup>–1 </sup>uL/mL. The catalase activity of the WT cells was decreased following 24-h treatment with the EO, but that of <em>Acox1<sup>–/</sup></em><sup>–</sup> BV-2 cellswas increased. ACOX1 activity was decreased (up to 49%) at 72hof treatment. These results show the protective effect of the tested EO on Acox1<sup>–/–</sup> mutantcells.

Sedimentary ancient DNA metabarcoding as a tool for assessing prehistoric plant use at the Upper Paleolithic cave site Aghitu-3, Armenia

Current knowledge about Paleolithic human plant use is limited by the rare survival of identifiable plant remains as well as the availability of methods for plant detection and identification. By analyzing DNA preserved in cave sediments, we can identify organisms in the absence of any visible remains, opening up new ways to study details of past human behavior, including plant use. Aghitu-3 Cave contains a 15,000-yearlong record (from ∼39,000 to 24,000 cal BP) of Upper Paleolithic human settlement and environmental variability in the Armenian Highlands. Finds from this cave include stone artifacts, faunal remains, bone tools, shell beads, charcoal, and pollen, among others. We applied sedimentary ancient DNA (sedaDNA) metabarcoding to the Aghitu-3 sedimentary sequence and combined this with pollen data to obtain a temporal reconstruction of plant assemblages. Our results reveal a stratification of plant abundance and diversity where sedaDNA reflects periods of human occupation, showing higher diversity in layers with increased human activity. Low pollen concentrations combined with high sedaDNA abundance indicate plant remains may have been brought into the cave by animals or humans during the deposition of the lower two archaeological horizons. Most of the recovered plants are reported to be useful for food, flavor, medicine, and/or technical purposes, demonstrating the potential of the environment around Aghitu-3 Cave to support humans during the Upper Paleolithic. Moreover, we identified several specific plant taxa that strengthen previous findings about Upper Paleolithic plant use in this region (i.e., for medicine and the manufacturing and dyeing of textiles). This study represents the first application of plant sedaDNA analysis of cave sediments for the investigation of potential plant use by prehistoric humans.

About the Heroic Image in the Epic «David of Sasun»

The article is devoted to the heroic image in the national epic «David of Sasun», which is an ancient Armenian heroic epic, as well as the pinnacle of Armenian classical folk literature. The subject of the study is the heroic image of four generations of Sasun. The purpose of this study is to study the typological features of the heroes of Sasun, to explain their origin and the transformation of characters due to territorial features. The article shows that to a large extent they are similar to the images of early ancient Homer's heroes with primitive colors, noble origin and mighty power. They are distinguished by amazing strength, great kindness and bravery, an acute sense of justice and compassion, a high degree of patriotism, strong sense of collectivism and valuable civilian consciousness. In general, being a kind of symbol, the image of the Sasun’s heroes reflects the deep desire of the Armenian people, who have suffered from foreign aggression for a long time, for world peace, national independence and a strong national defender. But at the same time, the author identifies those features that distinguish them from the heroes of other epics in the article. The fact is that over time, being passed from mouth to mouth, they "localized" on the territory of the Armenian Highlands and acquired the qualities inherent in this people with fundamentally different thinking, activities and ideas about bravery, about war. The article shows the similarities and differences between the heroes of the Armenian and Greek epics, the distinctive characteristics of the behavior and character of the heroes of the Armenian epic. The major research methods are text analysis and comparative study.

The Study of the Paleoclimatic Situation and the Problem of Population Mobility in the Eurasian Zone of the 10th -5th Centuries. BC.

Various natural phenomena, including climate change and various social manifestations resulting from them, have been in the focus of attention of specialists in various fields in recent decades. Despite the available research, the works on climate change in the Armenian Highlands to a lesser extent present the broad issues of the relationship between society and nature, expressed in climate change, such as the movement of societies over a large area and the change in their way of life. The purpose of this study is to present climatic changes in some zones of Eurasia at the end of the 2nd and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. and consider their influence on the movements of different tribes and cultures. Studies show that over the past 5000 years, the Eurasian zone of interest to us has experienced several cooling events, which in turn led to over-humidification. In other words, in the Eurasian zone at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. a situation of natural conditions was created, when the extraction of food became difficult. Therefore, it is quite logical that the tribes living in those areas, together or separately, had to leave their settlements in the hope of finding more favorable conditions. Probably, climatic changes were also the reason that, judging by the archaeological material, some tribes, which were characterized by a new economy and culture, settled almost throughout the Caucasus. The combination of written and archaeological sources suggests that a special role among them was played by tribes known in professional literature as "Cimmerian and Scythian tribes".

A review of anthropogenic stressors on Lake Sevan, Armenia

The resilience of natural systems may be severely compromised by anthropogenic influences. In this paper, the principal anthropogenic influences on the ecosystem of the Armenian highland lake Sevan during the past century are identified. The diversity and severity of the pressures were influenced by national priorities and the catchment's growth. Changes in the lake's morphometry and the littoral's morphology, as well as unsustainable usage of the lake's fish resources, were among the repercussions. They are discussed depending on how each sort of disturbance affects the ecosystem. Although the timing and degree of each stressor were specified, identifying the direct effects of each stressor was often challenging. The current management decisions and future threats to the lake's ecosystem are discussed. This article describes the history of the anthropogenic change of Lake Sevan and, using it as an example, assesses the ecological footprint of people on natural resources and their repercussions.

C. F. Lehmann-Haupt`S Studies On Assyrian Inscriptions Of The Armenian Highland

Prominent German orientalist C. F. Lehmann-Haupt explored the Tigris Tunnel during his travels in the Armenian Highland and Northern Mesopotamia from 1898 to 1899.1 Accord-ing to him, the kings of Assyria considered this place as the source of the Tigris (or at least one of its sources) and tried to reach it during their campaigns. This was probably condi-tioned by the circumstance that the waters of the Tigris River, which “flooded the walls” of the Assyrian capitals of Assur, Calah and Nineveh, flowed through the rocks there. Accord-ing to the inscriptions of the Tigris Tunnel, the sacrifices made by the Assyrian kings in honor of their gods were considered to be dedicated to the god of the river and the spring [9: A.0.102.6 ii 34-40; A.0.102.8: 20-23; A.0.102.14: 67-72; 14: 434].

The Paleolithic archaeology of Shirak Province and the open-air site of Aghvorik

Shirak Province in the Republic of Armenia is very rich in Paleolithic sites. Since the first discovery of Paleolithic artifacts in the 1930s, chance finds and field investigations by numerous scholars and archaeological expeditions have brought to light several new localities and findspots, among which the open-air site complex at Aghvorik is currently the most prominent. The Paleolithic sites of Shirak are geomorphologically associated with the Ashotsk Plateau in the north, the Shirak Depression and northwestern slopes of Mt. Aragats in the south, and the Akhuryan River gorge in the west. These areas contain several sources of high-quality lithic raw materials, including dacite, obsidian, and flint. The geomorphic and topographic locations of Paleolithic sites relate to phases of Plio-Pleistocene volcanism, glaciations in high elevation uplands, and the lacustrine and alluvial dynamics that formed the paleorelief and paleoenvironment. Lithic artifact assemblages generally present techno-typological characteristics consistent with early and late phases of the Acheulian, as observed at Lower Paleolithic sites in the Armenian Highlands and Southern Caucasus. While currently fewer in number than Lower Paleolithic finds, Middle Paleolithic artifacts obtained from sites in Shirak tend to be better preserved and made mainly of obsidian, while some dacite artifacts have also been documented. Shirak is also rich in paleontological, or zooarchaeological sites that have yielded a range of Pleistocene macro- and micro-faunal remains. While the Paleolithic archaeological, biostratigraphic, and geological records of Shirak have not yet been subject to systematic documentation and synthesis, the area holds great potential for future research to enlarge and complement the database of Pleistocene human occupation and environment in the broader region.

Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic properties of Origanum vulgare essential oil, rich with β-caryophyllene and β-caryophyllene oxide.

BackgroundEssential oils are of great interest for their analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. We aimed to study the content of the essential oil of the Origanum vulgare of the Armenian highlands (OVA) in different periods of vegetation and to investigate its antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects in mice (in vivo) and cytotoxic action in cultured cells (in vitro). OVA essential oil was extracted from fresh plant material by hydro-distillation.MethodsFor OVA essential oil contents determination the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method was used. Formalin and hot plate tests and analysis of cell viability using the methyl-thiazolyl-tetrazolium (MTT) assay were used.ResultsThe maximal content of β-caryophyllene and β-caryophyllene oxide in OVA essential oil was revealed in the period of blossoming (8.18% and 13.36%, correspondently). In the formalin test, 4% OVA essential oil solution (3.5 mg/mouse) exerts significant antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects (P = 0.003). MTT assay shows approximately 60% cytotoxicity in HeLa and Vero cells for 2.0 μL/mL OVA essential oil in media.ConclusionsThe wild oregano herb of Armenian highlands, harvested in the blossoming period, may be considered as a valuable source for developing pain-relieving preparations.

Geology and palaeoenvironment of Karin Tak Cave (lesser caucasus)

Karin Tak cave is located in the south-eastern end of the Lesser Caucasus (NE of the Armenian Highland). Development of the cave was related to the dissolution of Middle-Upper Jurassic limestone by meteoric water recharge controlled by pre-existing faults and fissures beginning in the Neogene. Geophysical studies of the cave, including by ground penetrating radar, have been conducted, and a map of the pit’s walls constructed showing the extent of the roof collapse breccia and of sediment deposits on the cave floor. The collapse material consists of chaotic limestone breccia and blocks. Careful analysis of cave floor sediments allowed the Late Pleistocene palaeoenvironment in the vicinity of the cave to be reconstructed. Analyses included integrated sedimentological studies (stratigraphy, grain size analysis) together with geochemical (X-ray fluorescence) and palynological observations. Pollen studies indicate the dominance of conifers (>60 % Tsuga sp., Pinus sp.) together with Fraxinus sp. (fam. Oleaceae) and Quercus sp. (fam. Fagaceae), which indicate a cold temperate continental climate in the Late Pleistocene. Non-dramatic climate change occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in the cave area, with conditions favorable for hominin activity.