Argan Research Articles

Do We Need New Crops for Arid Regions? A Review of Fruit Species Domestication in Israel

Climatic changes have created the imminent need for the development of new crops for arid regions. We started to domesticate and introduce wild and exotic fruit trees to our deserts in 1984. We tested different species in five eco zones in Israel, differing from each other in terms of maximum and minimum temperatures, type and degrees of salinities, water evaporation rates, rainfall, etc. We succeeded in cultivating pitaya species using hybrids from the Hylocereus and Selenicereus genera, and with a different species from the Cactaeae Cereus peruvianus, which we named Koubo. These two species are from the Cactaceae family, known for high water use efficiencies (WUE). We already have investors who started the semi-commercial production of Marula, Sclerocarya birrea sbsp. Caffra, and Argan—Argania spinosa. In spite of the fact that we developed good clones and knowledge of how to grow and ship White Sapote, Casimiroa edulis, and Indian jujube, Ziziphus mauritiana, we failed due to a lack of marketing research and development, which is essential for such a project. We have gene banks of some other new fruit crops waiting for investors to grow and bring them into the domestic and world markets.

Chemical and thermal characteristics of soluble polysaccharides from fruit pericarps of the Algerian Argania spinosa

Abstract Soluble polysaccharides were isolated from fruit pericarps of the Algerian Argania spinosa. The cell wall fraction was subjected to sequential extractions with H2O (2 × 2 h at 100°C), EDTA (1%, 6 h at 80°C) and KOH (1 and 4 M, 14 h at 25°C). The structures of the obtained polysaccharide fractions were characterized using gas chromatography (GC), infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The presence of arabinose, galactose and rhamnose in the pectin fractions suggests the presence of rhamnogalacturonan, while the abundance of xylose in the hemicellulosic fractions indicates the presence of xylan. The DSC data revealed the endothermal behavior of all the soluble polysaccharides and only two thermal transitions, the glass transition (Tg) and the fusion transition (Tf) have been recorded.

Valorization of argan oil: all you need to know about argan oil from Morocco

This work makes it possible to study the argan oil which has extracted by several extraction methods (artisanal, mechanical pressing of roasted almonds, mechanical pressing of unroasted almonds, solvent extraction, pulped by a goat), after extraction, a detailed Physico-chemical study was done on this oil to certify its quality, the study of this work makes it possible to achieve an official standard for argan oil and studies the influence of the extraction method and the origin of production on the chemical composition. The study shows that roasting appears as a parameter influencing the acidity value of argan oil. Analysis of the peroxide index shows that the samples of argan oil extracted by the artisanal method and that those pulped by goats have a higher peroxide content. The sterol composition as per the data in the literature. They are essentially Δ-7-stigmasterols. The main products are schottenol and spinasterol. The composition of fatty acids and sterols shows no significant variation. These results are consistent with those reported in the literature. This shows that the origin and the method of extraction do not influence the nutritional qualities of argan oil. The results for the tocopherols show that the extraction method (plump by a goat) and roasting can influence the composition of the tocopherols. On the other hand, the sample obtained by the artisanal method has a lower content of total tocopherols. Roasting decreases the total content of α-tocopherol. After this study, it is urgent to ensure the quality of this oil, so Physico-chemical analyzes were carried out to detect fraud in pure argan oil. Finally, we determined the influence of the fruit form of the argan tree (spindle-shaped, apiculate, oval, spherical) on the Physico-chemical parameters of argan oil.

Plant NHX Antiporters: From Function to Biotechnological Application, with Case Study.

Salt stress is one of the major abiotic stresses that negatively affect crops worldwide. Plants have evolved a series of mechanisms to cope with the limitations imposed by salinity. Molecular mechanisms, including the upregulation of cation transporters such as the Na+/H+ antiporters, are one of the processes adopted by plants to survive in saline environments. NHX antiporters are involved in salt tolerance, development, cell expansion, growth performance and disease resistance of plants. They are integral membrane proteins belonging to the widely distributed CPA1 sub-group of monovalent cation/H+ antiporters and provide an important strategy for ionic homeostasis in plants under saline conditions. These antiporters are known to regulate the exchange of sodium and hydrogen ions across the membrane and are ubiquitous to all eukaryotic organisms. With the genomic approach, previous studies reported that a large number of proteins encoding Na+/H+ antiporter genes have been identified in many plant species and successfully introduced into desired species to create transgenic crops with enhanced tolerance to multiple stresses. In this review, we focus on plant antiporters and all the aspects from their structure, classification, function to their in silico analysis. On the other hand, we performed a genome-wide search to identify the predicted NHX genes in Argania spinosa L. We highlighted for the first time the presence of four putative NHX (AsNHX1-4) from the Argan tree genome, whose phylogenetic analysis revealed their classification in one distinct vacuolar cluster. The essential information of the four putative NHXs, such as gene structure, subcellular localization and transmembrane domains was analyzed.

Comparison and correlation of phytochemical content with antioxidant potential of different parts of Argan tree, Argania spinosa L.

The Argan tree or Argania spinosa L. is a plant in the Sapotaceae family. It is an endemic tree from Morocco. This study aims to evaluate the phytochemical and antiradical potential of different parts of Argan for the further valorization of this organic material. Seeds, kernels, pulps, leaves, and branches were targeted for this purpose and were soxhlet extracted with methanol. Amongst the different parts, leaves displayed the greatest DPPH radical scavenging ability with an IC50 value (4.37 µg mL-1) close to that of ascorbic acid (1.97 µg mL-1). This observation was true for the ABTS assay as well. Accordingly, leaf extract was also the highest in polyphenols content (TPC) content, while seeds recorded the lowest value. The results were not so different for the flavonoid content, where leaf extract recorded the highest content. The leaves and branch of Agran seem to be the richest in antioxidant agents, as shown by the gathered data and results. Hence, it could be used as an important source of natural antioxidants.

Phenotypic plasticity of leaf shape in selected and semi-domesticated genotypes as new tool of Argania spinosa L. Skeels breeding

Leaves are part of the plant organs that are important to sustain its life. These organs are sensitive to climate changes and may present phenotypic plasticity in response to environmental conditions. However, affirmation of the leaves morphological plasticity and their regulation in different environments is still little studied up to date. In the present research, we evaluated performance of 20 different groups of Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels genotypes (half-sibling). Each group contains 3 half-sibs. Genotype × environment interactions (GxE) were evaluated as well, for shape and size leaves. To perform this, geometric morphometric principles were applied to analyze genotypes morphology in three locations (Central, North-Western and South-Western of Morocco). Univariate and multivariate analysis was used for data analysis. Results showed significant variation of symmetric and asymmetric components for genotypes, half-sibling and location with relatively high variation coefficient (ca 60%). Shape and size differences among genotypes, suggest that they were the main source in leaf morphology variation. Canonical Variate Analysis of leaf shapes reveals that the regions are clearly distinct from each other. For symmetric component analysis, Mahalanobis distances values among locations reached 35.53 between South-Western and North-Western locations, 21.88 North-Western and Central locations and 18.29 for South-Western and Central location. The differentiation between the groups using the Canonical Variations value showed a significant effect of the environment on the studied argan tree genotypes. Small leaves and narrow blades were observed in Central location compared to others. However, leaves originated from South-Western location had mainly an ovate shape. The same genotypes presented a high spectrum of shape variation varying from obovate to ovate in the other regions. This study highlights the strong correspondence between leaf morphology and genotype within different environments, and demonstrates that GxE interaction shave an impact to take into consideration in breeding programs.

Using two retrotransposon-based marker systems (SRAP and REMAP) for genetic diversity analysis of Moroccan Argan tree.

The Argania is an endemic genetic resource in Morocco holding an important ecological and socio-economical benefit. However, overgrazing and overharvesting lead to a serious downturn in the number of trees. To characterize genetic diversity within and among 24 populations, represented by 240 argan trees, four combinations of SRAP primers and eight combinations of REMAP primers were used. A total of 338 REMAP and 146 SRAP markers were amplified with a polymorphism of 100%. The average polymorphism information content value was 0.20 and 0.17 for SRAP and REMAP markers, respectively. The analysis of molecular variance showed that 26% of the genetic variation was partitioned among populations. The coefficient of gene differentiation was 0.2875 and gene flow was 1.2391. The average parameter diversity was: observed number of alleles (Na)=0.729, effective number of alleles (Ne)=1.131, Shannon’s information index (I)=1.143; Nei’s gene diversity (H)=0.093 and Percentage of Polymorphic Loci=35.68. The STRUCTURE and principal coordinate analysis revealed that the Argania spinosa L. populations were aggregated into 2 genetic groups. To detect outlier, baysecan software was used and 21 were detected (7 under selection, 14 under balancing selection) presenting posterior probability higher than 0.79. The current results can be explored in the design of management programs and to comprehend the adaptation mechanism of Argan tree.

Microfibrillated cellulose from Argania spinosa shells as sustainable solid particles for O/W Pickering emulsions

Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) from Argan (Argania spinosa) shells was prepared by chemical purification of cellulose, then mechanical disintegration via high pressure homogenization was performed to isolate fibrils of cellulose. Chemical characterization of raw argan shell (AS-R), purified cellulose (AS-C), and argan shell MFC (AS-MFC) included FT-IR, XRD and NMR. Morphological characterization of AS-MFC was assessed using TEM. Next, the use of AS-MFC as oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions stabilizer was investigated. The particle concentration was observed to affect the long-term stability of the emulsions; high concentrations (0.5–1 % w/w) of AS-MFC resulted in emulsions that were thermodynamically stable during 15 days of storage, which was demonstrated by the droplet’s size evolution. The suitable oil concentration for a maximum volume of emulsion using 1 % w/w AS-MFC was demonstrated. The results show that AS-MFC is able to stabilize 70 % w/w MCT oil without visual phase separation. Finally, CLSM shows the adsorption of AS-MFC at the oil-water interface and the formation of a 3D network surrounding oil droplets, confirming Pickering emulsion formation and stabilization.

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for treating diabetes in Agadir Ida Outanane region, Southwestern Morocco

In Morocco, diabetes affects 6.6% of men and women nation-wide and is higher in urban areas. Medicinal plants are used commonly by local people of Morocco for treating diabetes. The aim of this study was to identify plants species used for curing diabetes in the Agadir Ida Outanane region, Southwest Morocco. Data were collected by semi-structured and structured interviews. 400 interviews were conducted with knowledgeable villagers. The obtained data were analyzed through fidelity level (FL: 0-100%), use value (UV) and relative frequency of citation (RFC: 0-1). This ethnobotanical survey has identified 22 species belonging to 14 families distributed. The most represented families are Lamiaceae and Asteraceae. Three plants species, Cladanthus mixtus (L.) Chevall, Pulicaria mauritanica Batt., and Salvia aegyptiaca L., are mentioned for the first time for traditional treatment of diabetes. The most frequently cited plant species are Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels , Cistus creticus L ., Globularia alypum L., Olea europaea L. This survey shows that traditional medicine is still used and constituted a very rich heritage in Agadir Ida Outanane region. The collected data may help for archiving and conservation of traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants in the study area. In addition, it forms a basis for preliminary information required for future phytochemical investigation on the most used plants.

Chromatographic appraisal of fatty acid composition in camel milk following Argania spinosa’s inclusion in the camel feed

ABSTRACT The paper reports an evaluation of the effect of camel diet enriched with press cake and pulp from the Argane tree in the camel feed, and its effect on the subsequently produced milk. Following a chromatographic screening, the ANOVA test showed a significant difference in the fatty acid (FA) content depending on the diet management (P < 0.05). Monounsaturated FA (MUSAT) and polyunsaturated FA (FA) of the camel milk of the Argane Diet (AD) were higher than the control diet group (CD) (MUSAT: 46.163% vs 36.227%; PUSAT: 2.434% vs 2.248%). The diet treatment affected all the physicochemical parameters as well as the mineral content that showed very high significant change (p < 0.001). The Argane diet (AD) could be incorporated in camel diets replacing traditionally used control diet (CD) without substantial detrimental effects. Moreover, it could help producers to develop a quality approach of expanding camel milk consumption.

Study of the flavonoids and secondary metabolites of the Argan tree (Argania spinose L.)

Study of the flavonoids and secondary metabolites of the Argan tree (Argania spinose L.)

Green argan oil extraction from roasted and unroasted seeds by using various polarity solvents allowed by the EU legislation

Argan oil (AO) has traditionally been used for its dermatologic and hepatoprotective effects and for human nutrition. Traditionally, AO extraction is carried out by Moroccan women with the help of stone mill pressing. However, it is long and slow process that frequently is achieved at deficit hygiene conditions. In this research, unroasted seeds (US) and roasted seeds (RS) of argan tree have been extracted using different extraction systems: n-hexane, n-hexane:acetone (1:1, v/v), ethyl acetate, acetone, ethanol:water (96:4, v/v), and water. The main results are; Hexane: acetone extraction yielded the highest FA amounts, at 39.7 g FA/100 g of total US seed, followed by acetone (36.5 g FA/100 g US seed). The main FA in all extracts were oleic acid, from 52.1 (ethanol:water) to 57.7% (hexane), and linoleic acid from 22.9 (hexane, US) to 29.3% (ethanol:water, RS), both of total FA. Oxidation levels, computed by conjugated diene index (CD), was extremely low for all extraction processes. CD were higher in RS in comparison with US, due to compounds produced in Maillard reactions. Colour parameters indicated a color variation from yellow (US) to brown (RS). Therefore, the conclusions can be summarized as follows. All extracting systems yielded good quality argan oil, thus, the tested procedures constitute a suitable alternative to the traditional extraction processes. The obtained oils could be used in the alimentary and cosmetic industries with different applications. Future research should be directed to check the unsaponifiable fractions of the oils here obtained. Overall, this research opens new perspectives for industries focused on argan oil extraction.

A novel regeneration system through micrografting for Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels, and confirmation of successful rootstock-scion union by histological analysis

A novel regeneration system through micrografting is reported for the endangered Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels. Rootstocks were obtained from in vitro germinated seeds of the argan genotype G27. It was found that the storage time significantly affects the seed germination capacity, and that the seeds cultured immediately after harvest exhibit the highest germination percentage (91.6%). Besides, transferring seedlings to half-strength Murashige and Skoog (½MS) medium supplemented with 1 mg l−1 gibberellic acid (GA3) and 1 mg l−1 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) resulted in the highest shoot and root lengths (2.05 and 5.73 cm, respectively). Scions were taken from axillary shoots developed in vitro from microcuttings of genotype G41. Micrografting was performed by using the wedge technique. Afterwards, the micrografted plants were transferred to media supplemented with different plant growth regulators (PGRs). After 2 months of culture, 65–100% of the micrografted plants survived, and no difficulties were observed during the formation of the rootstock-scion union. Interestingly, the use of GA3 at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 1 mg l−1 was essential for successful micrografting (85–100%) and subsequent growth and development of shoots (2.40–2.72 cm length). After micrografting, scions produced one, two or multiple shoots, depending on PGRs. Histological analysis clearly demonstrated the successful union between rootstocks and scions, with active cell division and vascular tissue formation in the grafting region. After transferring the micrografted plants to the glasshouse, a survival rate of 80% was observed, and the plants showed normal growth and development. An efficient micropropagation system through in vitro grafting is reported for the first time ever for Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels, and successful micrografting is confirmed by histological analyses.

Pollination system and effective pollinators of Argania spinosa (L. Skeels)

This work deals with Argania spinosa breeding system and its associated pollinators in two different sites located in Souss valley. The main objective of this work was to study the effect of three pollination treatments on the percentage of fruit set of argan tree as well as to determine its potential pollinators. To study the breeding system, three treatments were applied for flower buds. The first treatment is an open pollination for insects and wind, the second one concerns only wind pollination, and the third one is a self-pollination. On the other hand, flower visitors were assessed to evaluate their frequency (F) and their activity rate (AR) which were exploited to calculate the index of visitation rate (IVR = F × AR) for each visitor. Pollen loads were also counted for the main pollinators as well as their foraging behavior. A highly significant fruit set was obtained from insect open pollination compared to the other treatments (p < 0.001), which ensures up to 88.05% of fruit set. However, 7.94% and 4.01% of fruit set were obtained from wind pollination and self pollination respectively. Forty three species visit argan flowers at both sites (43 insects visitors in Belfaa vs 38 in Azrarag). Highly significant frequency for Hymenoptera was recorded in Azrarag 53.2% than Belfaa (25.4%). On the other hand, a highly significant frequency for Diptera was recorded in Belfaa (61.9%) than Azrarag (36%). However, no significant difference was recorded for Coleoptera frequency in both sites (P = 0.08). Based on pollen loads and IVR, Apis mellifera, Halictidae bees, and Syrphidae species were the most pollinators for the argan tree. IVR computed for A. mellifera and their pollen loads were highly significant compared with other visitors. Breeding system of argan tree is closely dependent on insect pollination. Management of argan forest and orchards should be designed to increase and preserve insects community.

First draft genome assembly of the Argane tree( Argania spinosa).

Background: The Argane tree ( Argania spinosa L. Skeels) is an endemic tree of mid-western Morocco that plays an important socioeconomic and ecologic role for a dense human population in an arid zone. Several studies confirmed the importance of this species as a food and feed source and as a resource for both pharmaceutical and cosmetic compounds. Unfortunately, the argane tree ecosystem is facing significant threats from environmental changes (global warming, over-population) and over-exploitation. Limited research has been conducted, however, on argane tree genetics and genomics, which hinders its conservation and genetic improvement. Methods: Here, we present a draft genome assembly of A. spinosa. A reliable reference genome of A. spinosawas created using a hybrid de novo assembly approach combining short and long sequencing reads. Results: In total, 144 Gb Illumina HiSeq reads and 7.6 Gb PacBio reads were produced and assembled. The final draft genome comprises 75 327 scaffolds totaling 671 Mb with an N50 of 49 916 kb. The draft assembly is close to the genome size estimated by k-mers distribution and covers 89% of complete and 4.3 % of partial Arabidopsis orthologous groups in BUSCO. Conclusion: The A. spinosa genome will be useful for assessing biodiversity leading to efficient conservation of this endangered endemic tree. Furthermore, the genome may enable genome-assisted cultivar breeding, and provide a better understanding of important metabolic pathways and their underlying genes for both cosmetic and pharmacological.

Comparison of chemical composition and biological activities of Algerian seed oils of Pistacia lentiscus L., Opuntia ficus indica (L.) mill. and Argania spinosa L. Skeels

Many parameters can influence the chemical profiles and the biological activities of seed oils. It was therefore of interest to study Algerian seed oils, whose caharacteristics are not well known. So, the physicochemical properties and nutrient profiles (fatty acids, phytosterols, polyphenols) of seed oils from Pistacia lentiscus L. (PL), Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) mill. (OFI), and Argania spinosa L. Skeels (AS) were determined. The antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the oils were also characterized. The physicochemical parameters of the oils are closely related to the standard values. PL oil is distinguished by its high content of pigments. AS and OFI oils were dominated by linoleic acid, at 39.1 ± 0.5 and 55.8 ± 0.6%, respectively, while the oleic acid (41.2 ± 0.4%) was the major fatty acid in the oil of PL. The analysis of phytosterol levels showed that β-sitosterol was present in high amounts in the three oils, of 387.44 ± 3.04, 87.92 ± 0.72 and 58.79 ± 1.19 mg/100 g of oil in OFI, AS and PL oils, respectively. The characterization of phenolics revealed only the presence of protocatechuic acid in the PL oil and p-coumaric and t-cinnamic acids in AS oil. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by using the phosphomolybdate assay and the scavenger activity of the DPPH• radical. PL and OFI oils showed the highest antioxidant capacity compared with AS. Very weak antibacterial and antifungal effects, evaluated against four bacterial and six fungal strains, were found. Given the chemical characteristics and antioxidant properties of Algerian PL, OFI and AS seed oils, our results highlight the potential benefit of these oils for human health.

First draft genome assembly of the Argane tree ( Argania spinosa)

Background: The Argane tree ( Argania spinosa L. Skeels) is an endemic tree of mid-western Morocco that plays an important socioeconomic and ecologic role for a dense human population in an arid zone. Several studies confirmed the importance of this species as a food and feed source and as a resource for both pharmaceutical and cosmetic compounds. Unfortunately, the argane tree ecosystem is facing significant threats from environmental changes (global warming, over-population) and over-exploitation. Limited research has been conducted, however, on argane tree genetics and genomics, which hinders its conservation and genetic improvement. Methods: Here, we present a draft genome assembly of A. spinosa. A reliable reference genome of A. spinosa was created using a hybrid de novo assembly approach combining short and long sequencing reads. Results: In total, 144 Gb Illumina HiSeq reads and 7.6 Gb PacBio reads were produced and assembled. The final draft genome comprises 75 327 scaffolds totaling 671 Mb with an N50 of 49 916 kb. The draft assembly is close to the genome size estimated by k-mers distribution and covers 89% of complete and 4.3 % of partial Arabidopsis orthologous groups in BUSCO. Conclusion: The A. spinosa genome will be useful for assessing biodiversity leading to efficient conservation of this endangered endemic tree. Furthermore, the genome may enable genome-assisted cultivar breeding, and provide a better understanding of important metabolic pathways and their underlying genes for both cosmetic and pharmacological.

Evolution of Biometric Parameters and Oil Fatty Acid Composition of Argan "Argania spinosa L. Skeels" Fruits from Beni- Snassen (Eastern Region of Morocco) During Ripening

Evolution of Biometric Parameters and Oil Fatty Acid Composition of Argan "Argania spinosa L. Skeels" Fruits from Beni- Snassen (Eastern Region of Morocco) During Ripening

Conservation, valuation and sustainable development issues of the Argan Tree Biosphere Reserve in Morocco

Abstract The argan tree is a multi-purpose tree (fruit tree, medicinal, cosmetic, and pastoral plant) found in the semi-arid and arid regions of North Africa. It is under strong human pressure such as the impact of population growth, crop expansion, overgrazing, and wood and fruit exploitation that are also the main causes of desertification in the rest of the world. Over the years, interest in this beneficial tree and demand for its products have increased: especially with the increase in the price of argan oil, which is now one of the most expensive and much in demand oils in the world. This increase has led to many socio-political, economic and cultural changes at the national, regional and local levels, especially in farming behaviour and the habits of the local population. This bibliographic research was therefore conducted in order to analyse the various changes and their consequences on the planning, conservation, and management methods implemented in the argan tree area and their effects on the habits of the local population in order to ensure the sustainability of the Argan Tree Biosphere Reserve in Morocco. Indeed, the aims of this study were, firstly, to analyse the change dynamic of argan forest area in the ABR; and secondly, to investigate the impact of various socio-political, economic and cultural changes resulting from increased prices of argan oil on planning, conservation, and management methods of argan tree ecosystem and on the habits of the local population.

Comparative analysis of spatio-temporal dynamics in the plain and mountain argan ecosystems, Morocco

ABSTRACT The argan tree area is one of the regions of Morocco strongly affected by the desertification. It has an estimated population of more than two million people, 60% of whom live in rural areas. This population, coupled with the aridity of the climate, puts increased pressure on the argan tree area whose yield seems to be decreasing. The extent of degradation is variable throughout the argan tree area. There has been a lack of reliable information. Accordingly, the researchers made a comparative study over the last 30 years between plain and mountain argan ecosystems in Essaouira under a mainly semi-arid bio-climate, then, in Tiznit under an arid bio-climate. It appears that the argan forest degradation is greater in the plains than in the mountains. In addition, the results showed an increase in the area occupied by argan tree cultivation against a decrease in natural argan ecosystems. In Essaouira, the argan forest has lost about 1065 ha/year during the first fifteen years against only 376 ha/year during the second. In Tiznit, where the climate is more arid and where the argan tree is present mainly in the plain, the loss was about 1,140 ha/year during the first fifteen years against 1,533 ha/year during the second.