Ard Plough Research Articles

Sediment yield at southwest Ethiopia's forest frontier

AbstractDeforestation is one of the major factors affecting soil erosion in tropical regions but to what extent does the crop growth in deforested areas protect the land from erosion? We evaluated the effect of deforestation on suspended sediment yield at the scale of zero‐order catchments by contrasting five paired small forest and cropland catchments at Ethiopia's southwestern forest frontier. Suspended sediment samples were collected from nine San Dimas flumes and one V‐notch weir installed in catchments draining the natural forest and cropland, at different altitudes. The suspended sediment data were collected from June 8 to October 30, 2013 and 2014. The suspended sediment yield of both land‐use types was strongly correlated with the corresponding runoff discharge. The results show that the average seasonal suspended sediment yield from cropland (17.0 ± 7.6 Mg ha−1) is four times higher than from the paired forests (4.0 ± 1.9 Mg ha−1). High sediment yields from forests are related to livestock grazing, but forests still have an important role in the protection of the surface soil from erosion at southwest Ethiopia's forest frontier. Land management in southwestern Ethiopia's highlands will need a strong change in paradigm, in which the overall belief in the recently imported mahrasha ard plough is abandoned, oxen and other cattle decreased in number and kept in homesteads, the forests being protected from human and livestock interferences and the open farmlands turned into agroforestry. Such an approach is still possible as all required elements are available in the landscape.

An interdisciplinary tillage erosion experiment: establishing a field in grassland with reconstructed ard plough of the Bronze Age-Iron Age

Despite recognising the role of tillage erosion in landforms evolution, little research has documented its effects in prehistoric times. Herein, an interdisciplinary archaeological-geomorphological experiment with reconstructed tillage tools and management was conducted in order to measure tillage erosion when a new field in grasslands was established in the Bronze Age-Iron Age. Three wooden ards were reconstructed based on archaeological findings. They were tested in a cross-tillage experiment, consisting of a tillage pass perpendicular to the primary slope (6.5-9.7%), and a second tillage pass parallel to the primary slope of a convex-convex ridge with mowed grass (0.2 m high, vegetation cover >90%). The standard sole ard proved to be the most effective, with a mean tillage depth of ~0.12 m, a mean tillage speed of 3.8 km h-1, and a mean distance between furrows of 0.20-0.25 m. Only 13% of the 264 tracers placed on 6 transects were displaced, and the mean tracers displacement parallel to the primary slope was 0.04 ± 0.17 m. Contour tillage perpendicular to primary slope created V or U shaped furrows with a mean depth of 0.1-0.12 m, a mean width of 0.05-0.1 m, and incision under the main root zone. Only soil in direct contact with the ard was displaced, with a mean translocation distance of 0.06 ± 0.2 m parallel and 0.06 ± 0.3 m perpendicular to the primary slope. During tillage parallel to slope, soil clods of ~0.20 x 0.25 x 0.10 m were created and slightly disturbed or turned over one another. The tracers moved within the furrows and with the soil clods. Loose soil, resembling a seedbed, was not covered by soil clods. Mean displacement during the second pass was 0.03 ± 0.19 m parallel and 0.00 ± 0.15 m perpendicular to primary slope. The displacement from cross-tillage with a wooden ard in permanent grasslands was lower than many previously measured values of traditional animal-powered metal ploughs in permanent fields. No relationship between mean soil displacement and slope gradient was found. Dense vegetation and root structure influenced ard soil-penetration, its movement within the soil, and the displacement of tracers packed between the roots. Cross-tillage with a wooden ard proved to be insufficient for seedbed preparation. The results suggest that grazing or fire management, followed by repeated tillage with ard or hoe in order to destroy soil clods were necessary to establish a new field in grasslands during the Bronze Age-Iron Age.

A Critical Review of the Water Balance and Agronomic Effects of Conservation Tillage under Rain‐fed Agriculture in Ethiopia

AbstractAbout 80% of Ethiopia's population is involved in rain‐fed agriculture. Moisture stress coupled with traditional tillage with breaking ard plough, locally known as ‘Maresha’ are the major limiting factors for agricultural production. Soil erosion, low infiltration and decline agricultural productivity because of conventional tillage implement have been frequently reported. In order to curve this situation and meet the huge food demand of the growing population, different conservation tillage systems have been implemented. However, there is limited information about the impacts of the practices. This review paper therefore aimed at providing adequate information concerning the impacts of the practices on water balance and crop yield. Systematic, best evidence and narrative review techniques were used. Results revealed that the application of conservation tillage had brought significant improvement on water balance and agricultural production. Researchers found over 50% decreased in surface runoff, 9 to 40% improvement in water productivity and good crop transpiration (T = 53 mm season−1), compared to conventional tillage T = 49 mm‐season−1 because of conservation tillage implement. Moreover, doubled grain yield was obtained from ridging, subsoiling and wing plough (1076, 1044 and 1040 kg ha−1, respectively) compared to traditional tillage which resulted in 540 kg ha−1. Improving water balance and agricultural production in rain‐fed agriculture need to reduce evaporation and surface runoff through improving moisture retention and transpiration. This could be achieved by the adoption of conservation tillage which can improve on‐farm water balance, yields and water productivity among smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A mobile, in-situ soil bin test facility to investigate the performance of maresha plough

Ethiopia is well known for its use of an ard plough dating from antiquity – maresha – which fractures and disturbs the soil. However, hardly any notable progress of experimental research on this animal drawn tillage tool in the field has been made. The attendant problems in current practise are soil- maresha interaction, viz., uneven oxen strength along with different pace of walking, uncontrolled implement behaviour, and field conditions. Taking stock of the experimental research on animal drawn tillage tools in general, most of the documented works on the dynamics of the interaction between soil and animal drawn tillage tools tend to rely on trial-and-error based on factors mainly based on experience and cultural context. As such, no research tailored to systematically handle the link between maresha plough and soil bin experiments exists. To this aim, this study developed a mobile in-situ soil bin facility in which the system was calibrated, tested, and evaluated under outdoor experimental conditions, wherein online measurements of draught, speed, and depth of tillage were carried out. The insights and observations gained from the experimentation were discussed and reported in terms of smooth run, overload, cyclic forces, zero speed with minimal force, stoppage, speed measurement with no force, force measurement with no speed, and low speed with low force.

Effect of side-wings on draught: The case of Ethiopian ard plough (maresha)

Ethiopian farmers have been using an ox-drawn breaking plough, known as ard plough – maresha, for thousands of years. Maresha is a pointed, steel-tipped tine attached to a draught pole at an adjustable shallow angle. It has narrow side-wings, attached to the left and right side of it, to push soil to either side without inverting.The aim of this paper is to explore the effect of side-wings on draught using a field soil bin test facility. To this end, a mobile and an in-situ soil bin test system, for online measurements of draught, was designed and developed. This research considered tool geometry (maresha plough with and without side-wings) and rake angle (shallow – 8°, medium deep – 15°, and deep – 24°, representing primary, secondary and tertiary tillage processes in Ethiopia, respectively).Maresha plough with side-wings has greater contact area, between the moving soil and tool, than its wingless counterpart. When the ploughshare surface and soil slide relative to one another, the draught expected to increase with contact area, as adhesion and friction resistance increases with area. However, experimental analysis indicated that the maresha with side-wings required less draught compared to maresha without side-wings (ρ<0.001). This might be attributed to the effect of side-wings on crack propagation by a wedging effect to enhance and facilitate subsequent ploughing.This paper also dealt with the effect of rake angle on draught. Though the depth setup was getting smaller d1<d2<d3 for the successive tillage runs, analysis showed increment in draught force (ρ<0.001) with rake angle. This might be attributed to higher soil compaction that comes with depth and downward force resulting from repeated use of maresha every season to the same depth for thousand years.Although more and rigorous studies should be undertaken considering soil, tool, and operational parameters to arrive at conclusive results, this paper gave some insights regarding effect of side-wings on maresha plough and rake angle on draught. This shows that there is still room for improvement of maresha plough geometry for minimum draught requirement and optimum soil manipulation.

Medium-term effects of conservation agriculture based cropping systems for sustainable soil and water management and crop productivity in the Ethiopian highlands

In the northern Ethiopian highlands, croplands yield extremely high volumes of storm runoff and are the major contributor to sediment load in the rivers. A medium-term tillage experiment was carried out (2005–2010) on a Vertisol to quantify changes in runoff, soil loss and crop yield due to Conservation agriculture (CA) in the sub-humid May Zegzeg catchment. A randomized complete block design with 3 replications on permanent plots of 5m by 14m was used for three tillage treatments, (i) derdero+ (DER+), permanent raised beds with 30% standing crop residue retention and no-tillage on the top of the bed, (ii) terwah+ (TER+), ploughed once at sowing with 30% standing crop residue retention and furrows made at 1.5m interval, and (iii) conventional tillage (CT) with a minimum of three tillage operations and removal of crop residues. Tillage operations in the three treatments were done using the local ard plough mahresha. Local crop rotation practices followed during the six years sequentially from the first to the sixth year included wheat-grass pea-wheat-hanfets (wheat and barley sown together)-grass pea-wheat. Glyphosate was sprayed starting from the third year (2007) at 2L/ha before planting to control pre-emergent weed in DER+ and TER+. Runoff and soil loss were measured in collector trenches at the lower end of each plot. Soil organic matter was determined at two depths (0–15cm) and (15–30cm). Local farmers evaluated crop stands. Significantly different (p<0.05) 4-yr mean soil losses of 14, 17 and 26t/ha, 5-yr mean runoff depth of 76, 95 and 118mm, and 5-yr runoff coefficient of 19, 24 and 30% were recorded for DER+, TER+ and CT, respectively. Soil organic matter was significantly higher in DER+ and TER+ compared to CT. The mean farmers’ evaluation of crop performance in the last three years (2008–2010) showed a significant higher score for DER+ (6/8) followed by TER+ (5.6) and least for CT (4.8/8), and improvements in crop yield were observed; however, a period of at least five years of cropping was required before the difference became significant. In addition to the positive effects on runoff, soil loss and crop yield, we argue that avoiding repeated tillage which is 10–11 oxen-span days per ha and the faster ploughing pace at sowing in DER+ will enable a reduction in oxen density with further natural resource benefits. DER + and TER+ are improvements to good local practices that qualify them as CA: we recommend large scale dissemination and implementation on Vertisols.

Soil erosion induced by land use changes as determined by plough marks and field evidence in the Aksum area (Ethiopia)

The aim of the research presented here was to analyse soil erosion in response to changes in agricultural and soil conservation practices throughout history. The Aksum area (Tigray, northern Ethiopia) presents favourable conditions for the development of a long-term approach for assessing soil conservation techniques that have been applied for centuries (i.e., since the Aksumite kingdom, 400 BC to 800 AD). These techniques have been maintained until the present day, and parts of the terraced systems of the area are still in use. During the 1970s, social and political events led to a remarkable change in land use patterns, and large arable areas were converted into grazing land, resulting in a significant increase in soil loss. The rates of soil erosion were evaluated based on analyses of the deep scratches (plough marks) left on stones in the soil by the maresha, the ard plough pulled by oxen used in agricultural practices of the area, and the patinas, varnishes and weathering rinds exposed by soil loss after the abandonment of the fields. The study results show average rates of soil erosion of 2.8 t ha −1 y −1 and 65.8 t ha −1 y −1 for the soil conservation conditions under traditional agriculture (long-term observations) and accelerated erosion after abandonment (short-term observations), respectively. A comparison using recently calibrated erosion evaluation techniques conducted to support the field measurements revealed a close correlation between the calculated and recorded data.

Effects of conservation agriculture on runoff, soil loss and crop yield under rainfed conditions in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

AbstractThe aim of conservation agriculture (CA) is to improve soil quality and crop yield whilst reducing runoff and topsoil erosion. An experiment was carried out in a rainfed field using a permanent raised bed planting system for 3 yr (2005–2007) in Adigudem, northern Ethiopia in order to evaluate the effect of CA on runoff, soil loss and crop yield. CA practices were introduced in fields with Vertisols in a randomized complete block design on permanent 5 × 19 m plots. Three treatments were evaluated: (1) conventional tillage (CT) with a minimum of three tillage operations and removal of crop residues, (2) terwah (TER) that was similar to CT except that contour furrows were included at 1.5 m intervals, and (3) derdero+ (DER+), which consists of permanent raised beds with a furrow and bed system, retention of 30% of standing crop residues and zero tillage on the top of the bed. All ploughing as well as the maintenance of the furrows of the permanent raised beds was done using a local ard plough called maresha. Results from monitoring over 3 yr showed that soil loss and runoff were significantly higher (P &lt; 0.05) in CT followed by TER and DER+. Average soil losses of 5.2, 20.1 and 24.2 t/ha were recorded from DER+, TER and CT, respectively. Runoff was 46.3, 76.3 and 98.1 mm from DER+, TER and CT, respectively. Grain yield was significantly lower (P &lt; 0.05) in DER+ under teff in 2006, probably due to the high sensitivity of teff to weeds. The yield of wheat in 2007 was significantly higher in DER+ followed by TER. The terwah system is recommended as a first measure for wider adoption to reduce runoff and soil loss and to increase crop yield. The long‐term goal is to achieve a derdero+ system, i.e. a permanent raised bed planting system along with the application of crop residues.

The effect of long-term Maresha ploughing on soil physical properties in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia

For thousands of years, smallholder-based crop farming in Ethiopia has been practiced with oxen ploughing using the traditional Maresha ard plough where consecutive tillage operations are undertaken perpendicular to each other. Despite its wide acceptance by smallholder farmers, long-term use of the Maresha is believed to deteriorate the soil's physical properties. This study examines the surface and subsurface infiltration, soil evaporation and penetration resistance of sandy loam soils that have been exposed to varying durations (0, 2, 7, 22 and 35 years) of cultivation after being converted from acacia-based grassland dominated by Acacia tortilis and Acacia senegal in the Central Rift Valley (CRV) of Ethiopia. The infiltration rate of the surface layer increased significantly (p=0.05) immediately after conversion from acacia-based grassland to cultivated land. Thereafter, there was a weak decreasing trend (p>0.05, R2=0.24) in infiltration rate with years of cultivation. Unlike the surface soil layer, there was no significant difference in the subsurface (below 15cm) infiltration between the acacia-based grassland and lands cultivated for varying numbers of years. Following a rain event satisfying field capacity of the soils, the daily soil evaporation increased significantly (p=0.05) with increased duration of cultivation. The cumulative evaporation, observed over 5 consecutive days following the last rainfall, increased by 2.4 times in the 35 years old cultivated land from the acacia-based grassland. There was also a strong correlation (R2=0.86) between α (the slope of the cumulative evaporation versus the square root of time) and an increase in the years of cultivation. It is, therefore, concluded that long-term Maresha cultivation along with the present soil management makes the maize crop susceptible to drought and dry-spells. Improved soil management and development of appropriate tillage are needed to maximize rainwater use efficiency and achieve a more sustained agricultural production in the drought-prone CRV of Ethiopia.

The use of the marasha ard plough for conservation agriculture in Northern Ethiopia

Indigenous tillage systems are often undervalued in conservation agriculture (CA). In Ethiopia, since the 1970s there have been several attempts to develop and implement often major modifications to the marasha, the traditional ox-drawn ard plough, with the main aim of creating various types of surface depressions. The establishment of furrows and ridges increases soil moisture and grain yield and reduces soil loss. Dissemination of the modified tools, however, remains limited. Recent tendencies are towards testing relatively simple conservation agriculture tools. Major challenges remain, however; the need for capacity building and problems in marketing the tools. From experimental plots, often worked with exotic tools, there is a long road to real adoption by farmers. Rather than developing yet another CA tool, we investigate whether CA-based resource-conserving technologies might be achieved successfully with simple changes to the use of the marasha. On-farm observations on traditional conservation techniques were carried out throughout the northern Ethiopian highlands, and experiments were conducted involving resource-conserving technologies. Farmers traditionally use the marasha ard plough for various types of in situ soil and water conservation by creating surface depressions, either at the moment of sowing (terwah, derdero) or after crop emergence (shilshalo). Building upon this indigenous knowledge, we further developed resource-conserving technologies into a system named derdero+, whereby the traditional ard plough was found suitable for a bed-and-furrow system. From the socio-economic point of view, implementation of permanent beds and retention of stubble leads to decreased oxen (and straw) requirements, but also to an increased need for weeding in the first years. To overcome that problem, we introduced glyphosate herbicide into the tillage system. The decreased runoff (-51%) and soil loss (-81%) allow protection of the downslope areas from flooding, but soil nutrient build-up and soil structure improvement are slow processes, and hence the full benefit of the permanent bed system can only be expected after some years. Overall, this type of resource-conserving technology can be part of the ongoing intensification process which includes physical soil and water conservation, slope reforestation and irrigation development. It has, however, its own niche: the cropped land sensu stricto, i.e. the most important part of the land, both for the farmer and for a nation that is striving for long-term food security.

Design of the Ethiopian ard plough using structural analysis validated with finite element analysis

The Ethiopian ard plough ‘Maresha’ is a tillage tool that most farmers still use for land preparation. The production of the wooden structure is based on experience, culture, and trial and error methods. In this paper, the basic design of the ard plough is presented. The mathematical descriptions (traditional force analysis) are based on static analysis at equilibrium of the structure. The forces considered were the pulling forces provided by a pair of draught animals, the operator input force, gravitational weight of the implement, the normal and tangential interfacial forces acting on the ploughshare and wooden side-wings and the inertial force. The draught, vertical, tangential interfacial and normal interfacial forces of the implement were determined. Moreover, sensitivity of draught and vertical forces to different pulling angles and sensitivity of normal and tangential interfacial forces to different rake angles were investigated. The force analysis was validated by means of the finite element (FE) analysis using the ABAQUS package. It was confirmed that draught force on the ploughshare increased with pulling angle. Similarly, the tangential interfacial force of the implement was higher than the normal interfacial capacity at lower pulling angles. The output of the FEM and traditional calculation resulted in small errors of less than 3% for draught and 5% for vertical forces for small pulling angles ⩽30°. This study integrates the previous research experiences with theory and computer-based analysis and simulations. The design guidelines and considerations for improving or developing small-scale tillage implements are presented.

Improving animal drawn tillage system in Ethiopian highlands

In most smallholder farms in Ethiopian highlands, farmers still use the wooden ard plough (Maresha). This study was undertaken to understand and optimise the traction forces provided by the draught animals. An ard plough equipped with three load cells (one on the beam and one on each side of the yoke) was implemented to measure traction forces required for tillage of four Vertisol fields under wet and dry conditions. Tillage was performed at three different depths of shallow (0–5 cm), medium-deep (5–10 cm) and deep (10–15 cm). The interpretation of force measurement was done for equally and unequally strong pair of oxen. After tillage, soil samples were taken for the determination of bulk density and moisture content. The cross-section area of furrow profile (CSAFP) and depth were also measured. With the measurement of equally strong oxen, each ox provided 50% of the total traction force required for tillage. However, with unequally strong oxen, different contributions of each ox to the total traction force were found. The stronger ox moved faster than the weaker ox, creating an asymmetric position of the yoke. In this situation, the weaker ox had to work harder to overcome the force transferred from the strong ox and correct the asymmetric position of the yoke. Thus, the weaker ox had to provide a larger force to the total traction force compared to the stronger ox. A larger traction force was measured with the yoke asymmetric position for smaller depth, speed and CSAFP. Therefore, farmers in the Ethiopian highlands can improve the tillage efficiency of the Ethiopian ard plough by using equally strong pairs of oxen. However, with unequally strong oxen the weaker ox should be enhanced to walk a head of the stronger ox, allowing the latter to provide the larger required traction force.

Animal-powered tillage erosion assessment in the southern Andes region of Ecuador

While water erosion has been the focus of past research in the Andes, former studies show that soil erosion could also be related to the methods used in cultivating the fields. The main objective of the present study was to assess (i) tillage erosion caused by the traditional animal-powered “yunta” or ard plough in the Andes and the factors controlling the process and (ii) the implications for soil conservation. Erosion rates were experimentally measured on 27 sites, having slopes from ca. 0% to 60% and soils ranging from Andosols to Cambisols, in the Andes region of Ecuador (Gima, Azuay). Different tillage methods were assessed: (i) tillage parallel to the contour lines (‘Paralelo’) and (ii) tillage at an angle with the contour lines. Statistical analysis points out that erosion caused by animal-powered tillage is gravity-driven. A strong correlation exists between slope and downslope displacement: furthermore, tillage depth and initial soil condition are important. For the ‘Paralelo’ tillage method the tillage transportation coefficient ( k) is below 100 kg m − 1 Tillage Pass − 1 , for the combined ‘Arado’–‘Cruzado’ tillage method k may exceed 300 kg m − 1 . Tillage erosion is responsible for the reduction of the slope between the contour strips over a relatively short time period of 20 years, resulting in the formation of terraces and therefore the reduction of the water erosion risk. However, at the same time it may negatively affect soil quality.

Tillage erosion on slopes with soil conservation structures in the Ethiopian highlands

Soil translocation due to tillage by the ox-drawn ard plough appears to be an important source of colluviation behind stone bunds and lynchets in the Ethiopian highlands. To quantify erosion rates caused by this plough in Ethiopia, painted and numbered rock fragments, 3–5 cm in intermediate diameter, were used as tracers to monitor soil movement on 16 sites, each having a different slope gradient, in the district of Dogu’a Tembien, Tigray Region, Ethiopia. Average tillage depth was 8.1 cm and the net mean downslope displacement distance per tillage operation ranged from 4.7 cm for a 0.03 m m −1 slope to 34.4 cm for a field with a gradient of 0.48 m m −1. There was a strong correlation ( R 2=0.84, P<0.001) between slope gradient and downslope displacement. Where present, large rock fragments (>15 cm intermediate diameter) are obstacles to the downslope movement of tilled soil. The unit soil transport rate (Qs) per tillage operation ranged from 4.8 kg m −1 on the 0.03 m m −1 slope to 38.7 kg m −1 on the 0.48 m m −1 slope. These values represent the mass of soil deposited by tillage behind 1 m of lynchet or stone bund. During each tillage operation the same mass of soil is also removed from the foot of the upper stone bund or lynchet. For the first tillage operation, before the onset of the rainy season, the tillage transport coefficient ( K) was 68 kg m −1. As farmers till 1–4 times per year, annual K values can be assessed to range from 68 to 272 kg m −1. These values are less than those observed for mechanised tillage, which however, is usually conducted on less steep slopes. On average, tillage erosion can be held responsible for half of the sediment deposited behind newly constructed stone bunds in the Tigray highlands.