Archaic Forms Research Articles

Індоєвропейські витоки обрядовості слов’янського епосу

Was there a goddessSlavain Slavic pagan antiquity? Though there have been voices that it was possible, the analysis of Slavic folklore texts proved the issue to be more complex.The present paper shows that Ukrainian folklore as well as the folklore of other Slavic peoples may have preserved stable compositional clichés that can be traced back to Indo-European prototypes. In their turn, these clichés may be explained as the verbal reflections of ritual practices and sacred etiquette. It is stated that the final parts of Ukrainiandumas, Russianbylinas, and Serbian heroic songs that contain praise (slava) of natural forces can be regarded as remnants of pagan beliefs with strongly proved Indo-European background. The common motives ofslavain different Slavic epic traditions give us important insights into the Slavic pagan religion.At the end of dumas, bylinas, and South Slavic heroic songs, there is a distinct part in which the singer, apart from the main story, blesses the audience and the universe. This part had preserved the composition scheme comparable to that of Old Indianstutihymns, Pindaric, and Vedic poetry: 1) an invocation to the deity or a person with higher social rank; 2) a recounting of the previous (semi)mythological precedent; 3) a request.The obligatory lexical element of the final part of Slavic eposes isslava. As it is mentioned in the context of mourning over the dead or calming the natural forces, it is very likely that the concept was connected to the cult of ancestors and natural forces - one of the most archaic forms of religion. It is proved by two non-neighbouring cognate folklore sources. In Hutsul funerals up to the beginning of the 20th century,slavaused to serve as a taboo name of the soul of the deceased. Meanwhile, at least up to 19th century, the Serbs preserved the holiday ofslavathat is interwoven with the cult of the dead (e.g.,kolyvowas eaten during the rite).Thus, though we cannot claim the existence of the personified goddess namedSlava, we have strong evidence about the notion ofslava(praise, fame) that could have been current in Common Slavic religion. It is even more likely due to the underlying Indo-European tradition, in which the notion of fame was not personified though crucial for the ideology of warring elites (like in Pindar's lyric).Such evasive notion ofslavathat was not always personified though praised comforts very well to the picture of ancient Slavic religion handed down to us by Procopius of Caesarea. He claimed that ancient Slavs praised natural forces, rivers, and forests. Likewise, in the fragments preserved in some of Ukrainian dumas and songs from Kirsha Danilov's collection, the praise (slava) was sung not only to the heroes but also to rivers and fields.

The myth role in current identification programs: studying law remythologization in the scientific and educational field in modern Russia

Introduction. The article analyzes the issue of the myth role in identification programs of individual and group types, corresponding to ethnic law activation at the level of educational and research institutions. The availability of cultural centers conducting studies in the field of customs and traditions researches (e.g. in studying national languages) shows citizens' interest in “home area" ideas, specification of their position in general civil identification pattern and correlation between ethnic and civil law. The author puts a question of correlation between legal awareness types and law politization process (including educational subject), examines correlation between ideological projections of various research approaches and those research approaches themselves. Materials and methods . The material for the scientific study were the projects and programs which are used in teaching and researching ethnic law and legal philosophy in various educational and research institutions in Russia, as well as scientific results of those institutions' activities presented in books and articles and popular-scientific literature. The methodological foundation of the research is the horizontal and vertical comparative study method enabling us to understand correlation between various educational subjects concerned with ethnic law. This method also allows tracing their genesis and current state by key points affecting identification preferences. Research results. The article shows that law remythologization in the scientific and educational field in modern Russia is a consequence of the promotion of social and cultural processes at the regional and local levels. They were triggered by a conditional decentralization due to political reforms over the last thirty years and their result was an increased interest in national languages, culture and traditions. All these phenomena have a particular scientific and academic significance, as well as (under certain circumstances) an ideological meaning. As a result law remythologization, on the one hand, is a solid base for civil legal awareness filling its formalized directions with a meaning picked up from direct communication between people. On the other hand, accentuation on archaic forms of social relations regulation by means of ethnic law may contribute to dramatic intensification of regionalization tendencies. Thus dynamic balance between law and tradition calls for regular efforts for adjustment of corresponding educational programmes and for training highly qualified teachers capable of working with various students categories. Discussion and conclusion . The article points out and describes the basic directions of legal philosophy development in connection with legal anthropology, shows possible ways of improving educational programmes taking into consideration the ideological influence of the ideological ethnic law interpretation vector which may have an impact upon students' awareness. A special importance in this context is to be given to civil law teaching, as well to philosophy and complementary disciplines promoting forming a conscious social positioning.

To whom does art belong? On the origins of copyright law in Lithuania

In Lithuania, the history of copyright started with the abolishment of the Third Lithuanian Statute in 1840 and the establishment of Russia’s legal system. Introduced in 1828 as the rules on literary property, Russian copyright regulations were extended to cover music and visual art in 1845 and 1846, with further revisions following in 1857. The concept of fine art established in the copyright statute of 1857 was based on the image of an artwork as a unique manual product that was different from a mechanical reproduction devoid of any traces of authorship. The development of the art market and the progress of the image-making technologies, however, forced Russian legislators to adjust their legal criteria. The role played by photography was central in the process. The new visual medium overturned old assessments that were grounded in traditional opposition between unique and mass production. Thus, the copyright statute of 1911 was much more focused on artworks as intellectual values rather than tangible things. The Russian copyright rules entrenched the supremacy of inventive personal creativity over the copying and multiplication of art objects. However, in Lithuania, the law for protecting the rights of artists remained unenforced. The principal causes of the law’s ineffectiveness were rooted in the archaic forms of local art market and the conservative features of regional culture. This is why during the nineteenth century the idea of individual rights and the call for personal artistic freedom was manifested only on a theoretical level, while in practice the commitment to the common interests and retrospective ideals prevailed, encouraging Lithuanian painters and sculptors to replicate canonical works. The only known case of protecting personal intellectual property was related not to traditional fine art but to photography. In 1874, a Vilnius-based photographer Józef Czechowicz applied to the Imperial Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg and received an official confirmation of authorship for twenty-five of his photographic prints. It was an extraordinary event not only in Lithuanian provinces but also throughout the Russian Empire. Not coincidentally, the first attempt to appeal to the copyright law was made by an artist representing new visual media and working in the field closely connected to the sphere of technical reproduction and commerce. The copyright statute of 1911 was a relatively progressive legal act. After 1918, it was translated into Lithuanian and remained in effect until 1940, i.e. during the entire existence of the Republic of Lithuania. The fact that the government of a young independent state didn’t try to draft its own original copyright rules testifies not only to the progressiveness of the imperial document but also to the insignificance of the questions concerning authorship, intellectual property and artistic rights in the interwar period.

Nations in the times of global transformations: challenges and prospects

The author analyses the process of emerging nations in the epoch of “modern” and of on-coming capitalism. An assertion is made that a nation is produce of purposeful labours by the nationally-oriented state. In the contemporary world, what with globalization, the national state’s authority and its monopoly of government is notably diminishing which is a threat to the nation as a sociocultural phenomenon. The crisis of state brings the nation toward fragmentation into much simpler and more archaic forms of social existence which are based on ethnic and religious distinctions.

ЛИНГВОГЕНЕТИЧЕСКАЯ СПЕЦИФИКА ДИАЛЕКТНОГО СЛОВА БЕЛГОРОДЧИНЫ В КОНТЕКСТЕ ИСТОРИЧЕСКОГО РАЗВИТИЯ РЕГИОНА

The article presents the results of a field research of regional dialects in Belgorod area. Despite their relative “marginality” in the Russian dialect system, regional dialects of Belgorod region as a border one are an important object of dialectological research. The linguo-genetic and linguo-culturological analysis of the dialect vocabulary of Belgorod area has shown that it correlates with the dialects of later settled areas preserving the archaic form and containing the traces of inter-ethnic contacts. The author identifies the ratio of dialect lexemes, borrowings and their sources, establishes their areas and concludes about the formation and evolution of the south-Russian dialects representing the conflict of different ethno-linguistic movements and linguistic tradition.

EL ORIGEN DEL SÍMBOLO DE LA MEDICINA


 
 
 El simbolismo constituye una de las formas de lenguaje más arcaicas del pensamiento humano. Un símbolo es la expresión artística de una idea en común; y en la medicina, como en otras ciencias, el simbolismo forma parte del lenguaje para la comunicación efectiva. Actualmente, existen dos representaciones del símbolo de la medicina que se han confundido a través del tiempo por una malinterpretación de más o menos un siglo. La intención de este artículo es aclarar la confusión que existe sobre el origen real del símbolo de la medicina.
 Palabras claveEmblemas e insignias, historia, medicina
 
 

Rui Vázquez, copista da Crónica de Iria: indicios lingüísticos

The oldest text of the Crónica de Iria preserved today (C) was written by Rui Vázquez in the fifteenth century and its status as original has been contested by several academics. This work will shed light on the matter by considering diachronic linguistic differences between this text and mainly another copy (V), of the seventeenth century. The use of more archaic forms in V suggests that the original text of V must have been different from and earlier than C and, therefore, that the latter is not the original.

Il rapporto con l’originale nel rifacimento in ottava rima del Candido attribuito a Gaetano Marré

During the second half of the 18th century, the reception of the nascent English novel and the French philosophical novel in the Savoy and Veneto areas manifested itself in a variety of ways, e.g. through readings in the original language (as demonstrated by paratextual documentation) and faithful translations by lesser known literati, as well as through more radical adaptations (e.g. Goldoni’s Pamela) by authors of varying levels of repute. Such was the case with Voltaire’s Candide, which was unhappily rendered in ottava rima by the Ligurian jurist Gaetano Marré. This is nonetheless an interesting example of how fidelity to tradition and rhetorical and stylistic models tended to prevail over respect for the genre of a modern foreign text, framing it in an archaic form and even reinterpreting some of its content. This article seeks to offer a detailed overview of the non-conservative renditions and the intertextual caprices to be found in the above-mentioned reworking of Voltaire’s masterpiece, published anonymously in Genoa in 1797.

About Outreach: Prison Transformation through Creative Writing Design

About Outreach:Prison Transformation through Creative Writing Design Adelle Sefton-Rowston (bio) The YWrite project investigates the role of creative writing in prisons through a state-of-the-art prison education program designed specifically for incarcerated women and children in the Northern Territory. The workshops teach incarcerated students how to express themselves through creative writing in various forms of prison prose, graffiti art, and storytelling. Graffiti constitutes a special genre of writing that has been deployed by prisoners to reflect on their circumstance, to protest their penal incarceration, or even to transform their understanding. Because "graffiti" remains unconstrained by traditional writing conventions (of spelling, grammar, and punctuation), such writing provides a space for resistant writers or those of lower literacy levels to write intuitively. A writer of graffiti can articulate messages with a sense of urgency, uninhibited by conventional expectations of normative writing. The aims of the project are to foster motivation and self-efficacy through creativity, which in turn can lead to improved self-image and reduced emotional stress, an increase in literacy, and more postrelease opportunities. A major outcome of the program will allow detainees to share their "stories" through the publication or exhibition of their work, which will in turn contribute insights for society's understanding of effective prison arts programs and the effects of writing to transform. Why is this project important to the Northern Territory? In 2016, the Four Corners program "Australia's Shame" revealed the ongoing abuse of Indigenous youth in Darwin's Don Dale Youth Detention Centre and sparked many reasons why a penal system that does not rehabilitate at-risk Indigenous people should be completely transformed, if not abolished. Footage from the program showed children as young as twelve years old being punished with the use of restraint chairs, covered in spit-hoods, and locked up in isolation cells for indefinite periods of time. Such cruel and archaic forms of punishment have not far progressed since the fourteenth to nineteenth centuries in Europe, when criminals were punished with infliction and discomfort to their bodies through humiliation—or, to a worse extent, maimed, flogged, or sen-tenced to death. In Australia, Ronald Ryan was the last man to be executed at Pentridge Prison, and it was only in 1967. Yet even after the thirtieth anniversary of the Royal Commission into the Aboriginal deaths in custody, there remains a lack of willingness to transform prisons into places of support and rehabilitation for those who are incarcerated (who are mostly victims of domestic violence, the poorest of the poor, and those suffering from mental illness). The absence of a model of care to transform prisons in [End Page 432] Australia points to a gap in national consciousness regarding the humanity of those who are incarcerated. So why a creative arts program? Since the abuse of Indigenous children in Darwin's Done Dale Detention Centre was exposed, several fiction books on the theme of Indigenous incarceration in Australia have been published, including Kim Scott's Taboo, Paul Collis's Dancing Home, and some of the stories in Tony Birch's Common People. Such texts include the bitter fear of an alleged offender being chased by police authorities and the appalling circumstances of incarceration once caught. Yet these stories also show how the grit and determination of a few characters can transform prisons into places of colonial freedom when language and culture are strong, when there are opportunities to write, to share stories, and to empower oneself in preparation for release on the outside. To write is one of the most empowering acts of rebellion one can take—whether in the form of a novel or as graffiti written on a concrete wall. To write is to protest by creating the new formation of words in a different order to realize something new. Graffiti has a broad yet unique readership: it is not always read by choice, but nonetheless it has a fluid and encompassing range of readers—it is for everybody. The writing of graffiti is not an autonomous or mono act but can speak to many people in various ways. In prisons, for example, graffiti may communicate with inmates, prison staff, or perhaps even tourists...

Distinctive features of horizontal and vertical symbols in fairy tales and specificity of their reproduction in translation

Orientation in space plays an essential role for a human being in the view of his / her life. Beginning from the ancient times, people explored space through horizontal and later vertical dimensions. This led to symbolization of objects that surrounded them. Complete reflection of symbols of space, in particular, horizontal and vertical symbols, is concisely traced in the fairy tale genre. Being one of the archaic forms of folklore, the fairy tale co-opted various elements of mythological beliefs of primitive people, their cognition and way of life, and later was supplemented by individual idiosyncratic elements of the world view. Symbols of both dimensions actualize primary (physical) and secondary meanings (which are also signified by evaluative, moral and ethical, as well as ecclesiastically religious meanings). The most frequently used vertical and horizontal symbols in the fairy tales are those actualized according to the “right” / “left” and “top” / “bottom” criteria. Despite relatively extended research in the field of fairy tale symbols, there are few studies which deal with the issue of conveying vertical and horizontal symbols into the target language. The aim of the article is to highlight the ways of rendering vertical and horizontal symbols taken from English and Ukrainian fairy tales, and to assess adequacy of their reproduction in the target language. According to the results of the research, it can be concluded that due to its universal character, the symbols of vertical and horizontal space are easily rendered into the receiving cultures. However, adequate reproduction of vertical and horizontal symbols requires identification of their role in a certain fairy tale text, and, consequently, the importance of their rendering into the target language.

The Self Without Interest: The Return of Sacrifice in The Leftovers

While it is often said that the destruction of the world is easier to imagine than the end of capitalism, this essay reads The Leftovers by Tom Perrotta as a work of speculative fiction that explores the demise of the values that underpin the social order and economic system of bourgeois capitalism. The novel is set in a world that has experienced the mass disappearance of millions, in a manner that recalls the Rapture. The consequence of this supernatural catastrophe is to bring about a fundamental shift in values. The economic impulse that has long shaped suburban bourgeois life gives way to the will to sacrifice, portending the revival of archaic forms of religiosity with the disintegration of middle-class life. The characters in the novel find themselves overwhelmed and fascinated by strange and grotesque combinations of emotions, which lead them to act in ways that would have been unthinkable before the disaster. Drawing on the work of Nietzsche and Baudrillard, the essay examines how the deliberate negation of liberal values by the protagonists of the novel points to the arrival of a new, post-liberal age.

Ранньосередньовічна історія Східної Європи у рецепції Віктора Петрова (В. Домонтовича)

The purpose of the study is to find out point of the view of the famous archaeologist, historian, scientist V. Petrov on to the socio-economic, political, ethnic development of early medieval Eastern Europe. The methodology of the study is a comparative-historical method (comparison of historical concepts of V. Petrov and other historians), a method of historiographical analysis (specific content of published and unpublished scientific works of V. Petrov and other historians on the subject) and historiographic synthesis (formation of the general image of the Eastern Europe on the verge of decomposing primitiveness and the beginnings of statehood in the scientific and literary heritage of V. Petrov-V. Domontovich).The scientific novelty of the article is that it first reconstructed V. Petrov’s conceptual vision of the patterns of development of Eastern Europe in comparison with Western Europe in different methodological paradigms. In the 1930s, in the ideological and organizational development of the Soviet model of historical science, V. Petrov creatively used the potential of Marxism in studies of socio-economic history and proposed his scheme of decomposition and formation of feudalism — linking archaic forms of agrotechnics and family forms. In the middle — second half of the 1940s, at the emigration of V. Petrov, in the context of his cyclical “theory of the epochs”, considered the transition of Europe (including the Ukrainian territories) from antiquity to the Middle Ages as an inter-epoch break. In the 1960’s, upon returning to the USSR, the scientist continued his theoretical and practical research in the field of archeology, history, linguistics, ethnography, which allowed him to detail some aspects of early medieval history of the Middle Dnieper region including his latest scientific discoveries. At the same time, V. Petrov introduced the methodological foundations of his concept in a veiled form, adapting it to the realities of Soviet science.

SYMBOLS OF BORDER IN FOLKTALES AND WAYS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

Being one of the vital categories for all living beings on earth, space determines the boundaries for all humans in general as well as for an individual in particular. To define such boundaries, people employ a specific code that consists of the symbols of space. The latter are distinctly manifested in one of the most archaic forms of oral folk literature, the genre of folktale, which is imbued with the elements of the mythological worldview of primitive people, their mentality and mode of existence. One of the groups of symbols that foreground the symbolism of space in folktales is the symbols of border. They designate the boundary between ‘our’ and ‘their’ space in folktales as well as in daily life. Despite relatively extended research in the field of folktale symbols, there are few studies devoted to the issue of conveying the symbols of border into the target language. The goals of the article include the highlighting of the ways of rendering the symbols of border taken from English and Ukrainian folktales and the assessment of the adequacy of their reproduction in the target language. According to the results of the research, it can be concluded that due to its universal character, the symbols of border are easily rendered into the receiving linguocultures. However, an adequate reproduction of the symbols of border requires the identification of their role in a certain folktale text, and, consequently, the importance of their rendering into the target language. Moreover, it is essential to note, that elimination or change of the symbols of border may cause the violation of the integrity of the symbolic picture of the folktale and at the same time lead to the inadequate perception of the text by the receiving culture. Keywords: adequate translation, folktale, symbols of space, symbols of border, universal symbols.

Mikhail Aleksandrovich Lobanov: serving the science

October 16, 2018 is the 75th anniversary of the birth of an outstanding ethnomusicologist and folklorist, Doctor of Art History, professor M. A. Lobanov. His life and work are the examples of selfless devotion and service to science. The name of the scholar is inseparable from the processes of the development of musicology and folklore of the last decades. Lobanov contributed to the formation of new areas of research in ethnomuscology and exact academic research base, laid the conceptual basis for the study of genre and types of folklore style discovered by him, created an academic and pedagogical school in the field of studying archaic forms of traditional music and inter-ethnic interrelations. His numerous works, fundamental multi-volume works on bibliography, systematics of tunes, indexes have enriched modern science, laid solid foundations for future research in the field of theory and history of ethno-musicology. The materials of the study were the works of the scholar, personal impressions obtained during many years of communication with him, as well as the articles published in encyclopedias, journals and newsletters. The work uses the principles of historical analysis and generalization. The article gives a brief description of the activities of the scholar; analyses his fundamental works in the field of musical Slavic and Finno-Ugric Studies, and inter-ethnic folklore connections. It defines the significance of Lobanov’s works for the subsequent development of national and international ethnomuscology.

Analysis of the exogamous marriage motif in Karakalpak folklore

Данная статья посвящена исследованию каракалпакских народных эпосов. В статье проанализированы эпические мотивы, свидетельствующие о древних формах экзогамного брака. Мотивы, связанные с экзогамным браком, являются основным направлением каракалпакских народных эпических сказаний. На базе эпических материалов изучены зарождение нормы экзогамно-брачных отношений, этапы его формирования и историко-общественные особенности. Изучение брачных отношений и связанных с ними обрядов расширяют возможности этногенетических изысканий, позволяют определить древние формы брака и осветить особенности эволюции.В работе автор с помощью этнофольклорных материалов показывает, что в содержании каракалпакских народных эпосов были отражены самые архаичные виды экзогамного брака, совершенно отличающиеся от современных понятий. Экзогамный брак в каракалпакских народных эпосах осуществляется через инициационные испытания как «байги» (скачки), состязания по стрельбе из лука в мишень. Когда батыр отправляется в чужую страну в поисках невесты, он подвергается испытаниям. Это особенно широко описано в виде «кураш» (борьба в единоборстве), который происходил между соперниками, добивавшимися руки девушки, что подтверждало экзогамный характер брака.В каракалпакских народных сказаниях мотив создания семьи героя начинается с похода за невестой, которая находится вне территории, где проживает герой. Этот мотив широко распространен в эпических сочинениях. По правилам экзогамного брака богатырь или герой обязан жениться на дочери иного рода.По мнению автора статьи, древний вид «экзогамии», отражающийся в каракалпакских народных эпосах, является характерной особенностью семейно-брачных отношений каракалпаков, и её следы, как основной признак экзогамного брака, сохранились в качестве этнографических сведений в сюжетах каракалпакских героических эпосов.Кроме того, в статье автор интерпретирует результаты анализов образов, связанных с мотивом экзогамного брака в таких каракалпакских исторических эпосах, как «Кырк кыз», «Маспатша», «Алпамыс», «Коблан». The article is dedicated to the analysis of Karakalpak native epic. It analyzes the epic motifs that are indicative of ancient forms of exogamous marriage. Motifs connected with exogamous marriage are the main direction of Karakalpak epic lore. On the basis of folklore material, the conception of norms in exogamic marital relationship, stages of formation and its historical-social characteristics were studied.The study of marriage relationship and connected rituals broadens possibilities for ethno-genetic research, allowing to identify ancient forms of marriage and shed light on the specifics of their evolution.In the present work, with the help of ethno-folklore materials, the author illustrates that the content of Karakalpak folklore reflects the most archaic forms of exogamous marriage, completely different from contemporary notions. The exogamous marriage in Karakalpak folklore epic is realized by means of initiation trials, such as baigi – horseracing, and contest in archery. Whenever a hero goes to a foreign land in search for a bride, he is subjected to trials. Especially widespread example is described as a wrestling match – kurash, which takes place between contestants competing for the bride’s hand, attesting to exogamous character of marriage.In the Karakalpak folklore, the motif of creating a family for a hero begins with the quest after a bride, who is located beyond the territory where the hero resides. This motif is very common in epic stories. According to rules of exogamous marriage, the hero is obliged to marry the daughter of another kin.In author’s view, an ancient type of exogamy represents specifically characteristic of marital relationship in Karakalpak culture and preserved its traces as the main feature of in the form of ethnographic evidence in the plot narratives of Karakalpak heroic epics.Additionally, in the article the author interprets analyses of characters, connected with the motif of exogamous marriage in such Karakalpak historical epics as Kyrk Kyz, Maspatsha, Alpamys, and Koblan.

An Early Medieval Golden Reliquary Cross from Zagórzyce, Świętokrzyskie voiv. (PL)

Abstract A unique golden cross with an embossed depiction of Christ crucified and filigree border was discovered without specific context at multicultural site 1 in Zagórzyce, Kazimierza Wielka District (PL). This artifact is a most impressive example of Early Medieval box-like cross-shaped pendants – unequivocally associated with Christian symbolism – and should be considered to have been a personal reliquary container. The box-like reliquary crosses that most closely parallel the find from Zagórzyce come from discoveries generally dated to the eleventh century. The Zagórzyce reliquary probably comes from a similar period, as it uses an archaic form of Greek cross with slightly flared-out arms, which is found among pendants dated to the tenth century or earlier. It was probably produced at the end of the tenth or in the eleventh century in an area west of Poland, perhaps in the Holy Roman Empire.

О ТЕРМИНОЛОГИИ РУЧНОГО ПРЯДИЛЬНО-ТКАЦКОГО РЕМЕСЛА (СРАВНИТЕЛЬНЫЙ АСПЕКТ)

The article describes the terminology associated with textile handicraft. The paper focuses on a comparative analysis of the vocabulary referring to the mentioned handicraft, which originated in the deep antiquity but has partially preserved in its archaic form till nowadays. The author draws parallels between the structure of the Georgian and the Ossetian handicraft terms, identifies their semantic similarities/differences. A comparative analysis of sectoral vocabulary of the languages of different structure promotes a deeper study of national linguistic worldviews and identification of their typical features.

Official hierarchy and city and urban village typology established at the end of XVIII-XIX centuries

The article deals with one of the aspects of the cardinal reform of the city that took place in the reign of Catherine II. The reform of the city, taking place within the framework of the administrative and territorial reform of Catherine II, was closely related to the process of creating a network of new small provinces and the formation of a network of cities and urban settlements in each of the new entities administrative. The city network (a network of cities and urban settlements) was a complex (rather than a set) of settlements of a particular region, having (in the presentation of contemporaries) the status of the city or its official signs. In the course of its existence, a distribution of functions occurred within the network. The set of functions inherent in different urban settlements, determines their character and face in the broadest sense of the word. All functions can be conditionally divided into two groups: administrative and economic. In our study, attention was drawn to the approval of a set of administrative functions outside the city as part of the countrys spatial and settlement to the establishment of certain types of cities and urban settlements, with a set of features and responsibilities. In this case, between the types of settlements a stable hierarchy as administrative centers established. The reason for its appearance is wider than the need for formal subjection. The network of cities and urban settlements of the country, established by the beginning of the XIX century, was complex with a heterogeneous structure. It included settlements, officially called cities according to the rules of its time, and other structures that do not belong to this group. The latter also performed city functions and were considered contemporaries on a par with the official cities, separating themselves from rural settlements. The name of settlements did not always correspond to their economic quality. Along with the administrative type of cities, there were intermediate forms of urban settlements, which, according to the norms of that time, did not apply to cities (non-resident cities, supernumerary cities, settlements, small towns). In addition, archaic forms of settlements connected with cities and partly fulfilling their functions, were preserved. An important peculiarity of this historical period is the simultaneous existence of numerous and diverse forms of urban settlements including archaic ones. This circumstance is caused by the transitional nature of the time, the implementation of administrative reform, as well as the desire of the authorities to implement the process of transformation without a radical breakdown and social protest.

Nominative and accusative cases of plural nouns of masculine gender in the Ukrainian literary language of the ХVII th century (on the basis of «Synopsis» and «Chronicle» of Ph. Sophonovich)

The article is based on the historical materials. This investigation is dedicated to the analysis of nominative and accusative cases of the noun system in «Synopsis» and «Chronicle» by Ph. Sophonovich, annalistic monuments of the ХVII th century, in the context of the Ukrainian literary language of the ХVII th century. In article both archaic and new forms of noun in chronicle are revealed. The most important phenomenon in the system of the declension of nouns is the destruction of the old system of the declension, organized according to the structure of stems, and setting up a new system, based on the gender principle. It is determined that the language of «Synopsis» is literary Church Slavonic language in Slavo-Ukrainian variant from which foreign structural components are gradually removed and replaced with the Ukrainian ones. The analysis of case category gave the possibility to find out that some cases receive two or three parallel case forms caused by new grouping of nouns on gender principle as well as such processes as internal analogy, development of animate and inanimate objects category, number, step-by-step disappearance of dual number. At the same time some cases are multifunctional. In word-changing of nouns of new types of declension of the Ukrainian literary language of the ХVІІ century inflexions of some cases of different declension may be unified. New types of declension gave the possibility to get rid of archaic Church Slavonic forms and use inflexion forms on the new principles. In this work both archaic and new forms of nouns in chronicles which are typical for the modern Ukrainian literary language are revealed. On the basis of the investigation it is concluded that the noun system in the language of «Synopsis» and «Chronicle» by Ph. Sophonovich is a phase of transition from noun system of Old Ukrainian period to noun system of modern Ukrainian literary language. There is established that the noun system in «Synopsis», on the one hand, Keeps many archaic forms, many old inflexions and, on the other hand, includes different new forms (new inflexions, forms of plural number, etc.).

Gift and Gain: How Money Transformed Ancient Rome by Neil Coffee

Reviewed by: Gift and Gain: How Money Transformed Ancient Rome by Neil Coffee Marta García Morcillo Neil Coffee Gift and Gain: How Money Transformed Ancient Rome Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016. xiii + 296 pp. 7 black-and-white figs., 5 blackand-white tables. Cloth, $75. Marcel Mauss' Essai sur le don (1923–4) grounded the foundations of an inextinguishable and fascinating debate about the functions of gift giving across cultures and its importance as a regulator of human interactions. Mauss' proposed famous triple obligation—giving, receiving, repaying—still fuels prolific discussions around the principle of gratuity, and the mechanisms of reciprocity and obligation created between giver and receiver. Authors like Claude Lévi-Strauss, Pierre Bourdieu, Alvin Gouldner and Alain Caillé, among others, have discussed the fundamental question of the unconditional or instrumental nature of gift giving. These considerations have also invigorated new debates on Graeco-Roman gift exchange (e.g., Michael Satlow, ed., The Gift in Antiquity, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell 2013; Filippo Carlà and Maja Gori, eds., Gift Giving and the "Embedded" Economy in the Ancient World, Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter 2014), to which the present monograph is an additional contribution. Coffee's work is an ambitious attempt to analyse the development of gift giving from early Rome to the early Principate. The author's thought-provoking thesis is that gift giving experienced a substantial transformation from a traditional, archaic form of altruistic generosity to a practice led by commodity exchange and self-profit. In the author's view, this transformation began to impact Roman society by the middle Republic, when Rome experienced a progressive growth of wealth, and accelerated towards the late Republic. In this process, members of the elite increasingly engaged in money lending and became growingly dissociated from traditional values of reciprocity. The book is divided into six parts that break into fourteen chapters. The structure follows a diachronic order that meets the author's thesis. Part I situates the reader within the theoretical framework of "gift studies" and summarises some important anthropological and sociological contributions to the topic. Coffee favours Max Weber's theory of four possible motivations for social action, which he also applies for gift giving: instrumental rationality directed at advantage, value rationality directed at affecting our principles, adherence to tradition, and emotion. In the same section, the author looks at relevant terminology attached to this practice as evidence to detect changes of value. The following parts of the book meet the author's proposed periodization of the Roman culture of gift exchange: (II) an archaic foundation period, (III) a middle Republican adaptation period, (IV) an exploitation period of the late Republic, and a (V) separation period of the early Empire. This division supports Coffee's hypothesis of the progressive mercantilization of gift giving. Part II focuses on the early origins of patronage and of institutions like the depositum, based on fides, as well as on the impact of early coinage. Part III discusses the introduction of gratuitous contracts as a consequence of the growth of wealth and commodity culture. In this regard, regulations such as the Plebiscitum Claudianum (219–218 b.c.e.) and the Lex Cincia (204 b.c.e.) are interpreted as elite reactions against the increase of trade [End Page 525] and economic interest in gift relationships. The author presents Cato's attachment to frugality and his lack of interest in gift giving as a transitional moment in which greed and generosity were still flexible concepts not yet completely separated. Coffee discusses also the evolution of the concept of liberality (liberalitas, liberaliter) in Latin literature (fig. 5.1). Chapter 6, which ends the section, interprets the failed reforms of the Gracchi as an attempt to introduce private generosity as a collective virtue in public life. Part IV expands the terminological analysis and looks at the increasing literary use of words like avaritia, liberalitas, pecunia and aes alienum in line with a progressive generalisation of moneylending among members of the elite towards the end of the Republic. The section is centred on Cicero's and Sallust's critical views of the degradation of generosity and the decline of reciprocity among peers. Caesar's extensive use of liberalitas...