Archaeological Evidence Research Articles

Tensão entre monoteísmo e politeísmo na Bíblia Hebraica e no Antigo Israel

The article analyzes the tension between monotheism and polytheism in the Hebrew Bible (HB) and the religion of ancient Israel, proposing that the development of monotheism was a gradual and multifaceted process. The study examines biblical passages and archaeological evidence suggesting the coexistence of polytheistic beliefs alongside the predominant worship of Yahweh. The author discusses the use of terms such as henotheism and monolatry to describe the religious phenomenon in ancient Israel, arguing that monotheism only fully consolidated during the exilic period. The applied methodology includes the distinction between “emic” and “etic” approaches, allowing for a contextualized analysis of religious practices without imposing modern concepts. Additionally, the article explores the influence of other deities, such as El, Asherah, and Baal, on Israelite religiosity, suggesting that the transition to monotheism involved a process of assimilation, exclusion, and transformation of religious practices. The conclusion is that Israelite monotheism did not emerge abruptly, but as the result of a long theological and political reflection, with both external and internal influences shaping religious thought over time.

Neighbours of the Apsaros Fort. Local Tribes on the Black Sea Coast during the Principate

In the second half of the first century ce, the Romans built a fort at the mouth of the river Apsaros on the coast of Colchis. A Roman garrison was stationed there also in the second century and first half of the third. One of the reasons for fortifying the estuary of the river, given by both Pliny the Elder and Arrian, was the immediate vicinity of the kingdom of Iberia. Both Roman authors also described the local tribes living on the coast between Trebizond and Apsaros and further north. One wonders whether they were the indigenous population of the region and what kind of a relationship they had with the Roman Empire. This study searches for answers to these questions in the preserved written sources and in the archaeological record.

The final plague outbreak in Scotland 1644-1649: Historical, archaeological, and genetic evidence.

This paper has several aims: to determine if Yersinia pestis was the causative agent in the last Scottish plague outbreak in the mid-17th century; map the geographic spread of the epidemic and isolate potential contributing factors to its spread and severity; and examine funerary behaviours in the context of a serious plague epidemic in early modern Scotland. Results confirm the presence of Y. pestis in individuals associated with a mid-17th century plague pit in Aberdeen. This is the first time this pathogen has been identified in an archaeological sample from Scotland. The geographic spread of the plague from 1644 through to 1649 is generally, with some key exceptions, restricted to the central lowlands of Scotland. The role of administrative responses to the epidemic in managing its spread and distribution is unclear. Finally, normative funerary practices tended to co-exist with mass burial scenarios. In conclusion, the distribution of the epidemic is arguably a function of population density/distribution, transportation networks, and the chaos associated with the concurrent civil war. Administrative responses to the epidemic likely had a variable, albeit limited, effect in the central lowlands. More peripheral cities, such as Aberdeen, while also employing sophisticated plague prevention measures, were perhaps initially spared simply due to their distance from the central plague belt. It is unclear if a general fear of the dead and contracting the Pest from plague victims can be used to characterise mid-17th century Scottish public opinion. Mass burial appears to have been a practical approach to the logistical problems mass mortality presented, while many instances of normative burial treatment can also be seen.

The archaeological record of the Qaraçay River Basin along the northern piedmont of the Lesser Caucasus

Abstract This project documents the current archaeological record of the Qaraçay River Basin in western Azerbaijan. Integrating intensive pedestrian survey, satellite imagery analysis and topographic mapping, the study identified 85 kurgans, six necropolises and nine sites from the Chalcolithic or medieval periods. The authors believe this demonstrates the potential for further archaeological studies in the region.

Interdisciplinary insights into the cultural and chronological context of chili pepper (Capsicum annuum var. annuum L.) domestication in Mexico

This study investigates the temporal and spatial factors driving the domestication of Capsicum annuum var. annuum L. in Mexico. This species exhibits the greatest morphological diversity in fruit among Capsicum species-a characteristic that is even more pronounced in contemporary landraces cultivated by indigenous communities. Despite the chili pepper's integral role in regional culinary traditions, its domestication history in this region remains poorly understood, often subject to scholarly interpretations that marginalize or oversimplify archaeological evidence. To address this gap, our interdisciplinary team of archaeologists, botanists, and ecologists combine modern and archaeological Capsicum seed data, diachronic archaeological site locations, and ecological niche modeling to identify potential regions where early human populations and the closest wild ancestors may have coexisted. Our results show spatial correlations between early Capsicum distribution and archaeological site prevalence, suggesting that the beginning of the domestication process occurred in ecologically suitable areas for both wild Capsicum and human settlement. These findings challenge previous hypotheses regarding highland/dry cave domestication regions, as our data indicate that lowland regions-specifically the Yucatán Peninsula and southern coastal Guerrero-were more conducive to early encounters between wild Capsicum and humans. We propose a geographically diffuse and protracted model of chili pepper domestication-driven by a ruderal pathway-which involved at least two asynchronous events across Mexico.

Burned Lithics: An Experimental Approach to Characterize the Effects of Fire on the Lithic Archaeological Record of Northern Patagonia, Argentina

ABSTRACT A field-based experiment was carried out to assess the impact of heat on lithic raw materials commonly used for knapping tools along the north Patagonian coast of Argentina. Descriptive data for the experimental items were recorded both before and after exposure to fire. Through network analysis, we explore the relationship between variables to establish the co-occurring of traits resulting from the material’s exposure to heat. Statistical analysis of network topology allows us to identify clusters of variables, which were categorized into morphological, mechanical, and pseudo-technological groups. These findings indicate that alterations within the same category covary more than those across different categories. The results obtained are relevant to addressing taphonomic issues in the northern coast of Patagonia, where frequent fire seasons affect surface sites. Ultimately, we aim to characterize these traits and build a reference framework to compare the transformations observed in the lithic archaeological record caused by natural fires.

Landscape Histories and the Search for Early Settlements along Louisiana's Bayous

Abstract Historical changes from shifting land use, the natural meandering of waterways, and the aftereffects of erosion complicate modern environments and obfuscate precontact landscapes. Although archaeologists can create stratified sampling models or employ systematic surveys, traditional field methodologies are often not suitable for site discovery, thereby limiting knowledge of ancient cultural landscapes. Many water systems in southern Louisiana, and in many parts of the world, have been covered or concealed in backswamps by natural geomorphological processes, development, or environmental degradation. Investigation standards that do not account for these changes will not be effective at identifying archaeological sites in such transformed landscapes. Discoveries made during ongoing archaeological research in Iberville Parish, Louisiana, provide examples of what can be missed and offer solutions through changes in archaeological field methods. This article advocates for a mixed-methodology approach, drawing from historical research and shallow geophysics to look at landforms and landscape changes. Strictly following state survey guidelines can muddle the archaeological record, particularly in places subject to significant landscape change from historical land-use alteration. By applying these approaches, we offer a way to reconstruct ancient landscapes and landforms that are culturally significant but often missed given the nature of modern environmental conditions.

The South Caucasus from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Neolithic: Intersection of the genetic and archaeological data

The genomic characterisation of human remains and the study of archaeological assemblages are complementary keys to understanding the evolution of ancient human groups. This article proposes a dialogue between these two approaches for the South Caucasus between the Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic periods.In the Upper Palaeolithic before the Last Glacial Maximum (ca. 40.-23. ka cal BP), genetic and archaeological data demonstrate the originality of the populations of the South Caucasus (Caucasus_UP genome) compared with their neighbours in SE Europe and SW Asia and also show the existence of links between these different regions. For the post-LGM phase (ca. 20.9–11.7 ka cal BP), archaeological data suggest a certain continuity with the previous period during the cold phase of the Oldest Dryas, followed by a marked rapprochement with the Zarzian culture in the Zagros starting with the warming of the Bølling-Allerød. Genetic analyses, which are available only for the latter phase, reveal a new genome (Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer or CHG), that is very close to that of the ancestors of the Neolithic populations of the Zagros.For the Early Holocene (ca. 11.7–8.2 ka cal BP or 9700-6200 cal BCE), the CHG genome, which still characterises the populations of the South Caucasus, is difficult to distinguish in modelling from that of the Zagros (Iran_N). However, archaeological data suggest that the spread of the Iran_N/CHG gene pool from Iran to Upper Mesopotamia and Central Anatolia was due to populations from the northwest Zagros, and not to those from the South Caucasus, who had only occasional contacts with the Fertile Crescent.At the beginning of the Middle Holocene (ca. 8.2–7.2 ka cal BP or 6200-5200 cal BCE), the appearance in the South Caucasus of animals and plants presenting a high level of domestication, as well as the introduction of new techniques (pressure knapping with a lever, pottery), are clearly due to the arrival of populations from the Fertile Crescent, as confirmed by genetic analyses. These analyses also show that there was not a replacement of local Mesolithic communities by Neolithic farmers, which the archaeological evidence confirms.

Vroegmiddeleeuwse funeraire diversiteit en de diepste dialectgrenzen in de Nederlanden

The most prominent dialect boundaries in the Dutch language area run from north to south, ending in the southwest between the rivers Scheldt and Dender. Notably, one isogloss separates an eastern region with long vowels fronted by i-umlaut, from a western region lacking that feature. This paper examines the main historical linguistic perspectives on the origins of this complex phenomenon integrating historical and archaeological evidence. A general explanation for the dialect boundaries posits a confrontation between an Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic movement from the west and a Frankish movement from the (north)east. The stabilisation of this confrontation, particularly the umlaut-isogloss between the Scheldt and the Dender, remains unresolved and is one of the most intriguing aspects of the Germanic colonisation of the region. Although historical sources are sparse, recent archaeological research has provided new insights. Archaeology, which studies human traces left in the ground - including living forms, artefacts, agriculture and burial practices – has revealed that early medieval cremation rites coincide with the umlaut-isogloss in that region, revealing a convergence between archaeological and historical linguistic evidence. Northern populations, familiar with Ingvaeonic customs, practised cremation, giving the oldest Ingvaeonic elements in the Low Countries both a cultural and linguistic identity. Alongside the Franks, the Saxons also contributed significantly to the colonisation history of the area. Therefore, it is essential to outline the historical knowledge of the first appearances of the Saxons, Franks and Thuringians and their interactions. Contemporary sources such as the Byzantine author Procopius (c. 550) are valuable for a better understanding of colonisation on both sides of the Channel and the North Sea. The roots of the umlaut-isoglosses in the Ingvaeonic continuum prompt a discussion of Ingvaeonisms and their early manifestations, including place names ending in -inga haim, within the broader context of the Dutch-Roman language boundary.

Diplomatic Communication of Silk Sign: Vehicle, Signification, and Narrative

ABSTRACT This study explores how silk as an aesthetic sign plays the active and efficient role of diplomatic narrative in the cultural and political communication between countries employing the historical and archaeological evidence in China. Aesthetic signs are of communicative values and cultural narrative significance. Silk is an aesthetic sign with iconic properties. The paper argues that beauty, exquisiteness, and value are the visual properties that silk as a sign vehicle presents in terms of texture, colours, patterns, and weaving techniques, recognised across all cultural contexts throughout history. The richness of favourable meanings that a sign conveys is embodied in the characteristics of its specific vehicle. The combination of silk as a sign vehicle and its designated object conveys the sign's value, thus performing the narrative function. Due to its iconic functions, silk is the most distinct and active aesthetic sign. Therefore, this paper argues that silk as a sign expresses diplomatic fraternity and harmony narrates aesthetics of unremitting pursuit of gentleness and auspiciousness, and constructs an international image of a country willing to coexist with others harmoniously and offer mutual assistance during difficulties.

Apuntes para una bioarqueología de la infancia en Uruguay

Apart from occasional descriptions of infant burials in the first half of the twentieth century, bioarchaeological studies of childhood in Uruguay have few precedents, particularly of a demographic and taphonomic nature. In this paper, we analyze the background and current situation of childhood bioarchaeology in Uruguay, including a detail of the archaeological record of infant skeletal remains. This record is fragmentary in three aspects. First, there is a lack of representation at the level of skeletal elements, with the remains consisting mainly of cranial and dental remains. Second, there is an underrepresentation at the level of individuals who died in the first year of life; the cause of these two fragmentarities is probably a bias at the level of recovery of the remains during excavation. Finally, there is a low number of dated remains; more datings are needed to increase the chronological resolution of the record. For the moment, the potential of the record for childhood bioarchaeology studies is limited, and it is possible to make significant advances in the short term at the level of dietary changes during early life and funerary patterns; further studies require a quantitative and qualitative increase of the sample.

Late pleistocene exploitation of Ephedra in a funerary context in Morocco

The active compounds found in many plants have been widely used in traditional medicine and ritual activities. However, archaeological evidence for the use of such plants, especially in the Palaeolithic period, is limited due to the poor preservation and fragility of seed, fruit, and other botanical macro-remains. In this study, we investigate the presence and possible uses of Ephedra during the Late Pleistocene based on the analysis of exceptionally preserved plant macrofossils recovered from c. 15 ka year-old archaeological deposits at Grotte des Pigeons in northeastern Morocco. This cave has yielded the earliest carbonized plant macrofossils of Ephedra, which were found concentrated in a human burial deposit along with other special finds. Ephedra is a plant known to produce high amounts of alkaloids, primarily ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, which have been utilized in traditional medicine. Direct radiocarbon dates on both Ephedra and the human remains indicate that they were contemporaneous. To understand the uses of Ephedra by people at the site, we discuss the different pathways through which plant remains could have arrived. We suggest that the charred cone bracts of Ephedra likely represent residues of the processing and consumption of the plant’s fleshy cones, which may have been valued for both their nutritional and therapeutic properties. Furthermore, we interpret the presence of Ephedra and its deposition in the burial area as evidence that this plant played a significant role during the funerary activities.

Challenging the Significance of the LALIA and the Justinianic Plague: A Reanalysis of the Archaeological Record

Summary The Late Antique Little Ice Age (LALIA), and the Justinianic Plague, were recently suggested as the possible culprits for settlement contraction and population decline that supposedly occurred in the 6th c. CE. According to some who support this claim, these changes contributed to the weakening of this empire, which eventually led to the loss of vast territories and its defeat by the Persians and Arabs in the first half of the 7th c. CE. The assumptions that climate and plague had devastating impacts in the 6th c. CE are largely based on selected textual evidence, and archaeological evidence outside of the boundaries of the Eastern Roman Empire. As the current article will show, it seems that these assumptions are inherently incorrect as vast amounts of evidence, including archaeological survey data, settlement patterns, shipwreck analyses, pottery distribution in the Mediterranean and other material, indicate that there was no decline in the 6th c. CE. On the contrary, it is possible that there was a peak in population size in the second half of the 6th c. CE, suggesting that the LALIA and the Justinianic plague were limited in their impact.

Machine learning-based identification of geomorphological units in Quintero Bay (32°S) and its implications for the search for early drowned archaeological sites on the western coast of South America

High-resolution predictive modeling of submerged landscapes has successfully allowed the detection of early archaeological sites that are presently underwater. These models have traditionally relied on geophysical techniques, which can be both time-consuming and expensive, especially for extensive survey areas. In contrast, geomorphological mapping using Machine Learning (ML) techniques has emerged as a rapid and accessible alternative with numerous advantages over conventional methods. In this work, we employ ML algorithms (Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, Partial Least Squares, and Principal Component Analysis) trained on land to analyze the seabed of Quintero Bay to identify relic landforms that characterize the paleolandscape within which the submerged early site GNLQ1 formed. The methodology also included a multicriteria analysis that integrated geological (geomorphological, tectonic, eustatic) and archaeological (attributes of non-submerged records in the region) approaches to delineate potential areas of archaeological interest. The findings of this work can guide and enhance future archaeological research. The results underscore the importance of possessing a comprehensive understanding of the study area and its associated variables to the successful application of ML techniques. This also applies to modeling drowned paleolandscapes. Nevertheless, despite these challenges, ML-based modeling of drowned paleolandscapes can provide an overview of the distribution of geoforms comprising the paleolandscape, which in turn can help identify future geophysical survey areas to focus on in the search for archaeological evidence, thereby improving our understanding of the relationship between early human groups and these landscapes.

Inflammatory arthropathies: Perspectives from a Portuguese male individual (1574–1834 CE)

AbstractArthropathies are common in past populations and can be categorized into two groups: those with predominant bone production (e.g., osteoarthritis) and those with significant bone loss (e.g., erosive arthropathies). The former is frequent in the archaeological record, whereas the latter are uncommon. We present a Post‐Medieval male individual, recovered in the Convent of the Holy Spirit (Loures, Portugal), with multiple articular and entheseal bone changes, particularly extensive periarticular, marginal, and subchondral erosive processes, often exposing trabecular bone. Proliferative lesions and extensive ankylosis are also observed in the synovial joints. These pathological changes affect both the axial and peripheral skeleton in a polyarticular, bilateral, and asymmetric pattern. Given that the appendicular skeleton, particularly the hands and feet, are the most affected areas, the most probable diagnosis is a peripheral spondyloarthropathy such as psoriatic arthritis or reactive arthritis. This case study is the first archaeological instance of psoriatic arthritis or reactive arthritis described in Portugal, highlighting the importance of a differential diagnosis and the need for reflection when pathological changes characteristics overlap, advocating for a broader diagnostic approach.

The Characterization of the Building Materials Used in the Refectory of the Manzana Jesuítica in Córdoba (Argentina) on the Basis of a Study of Its Historical Background and the Archaeological Evidence

This paper explores the historical and geological background of the refectory of the Manzana Jesuítica in the city of Córdoba (Argentina), as a basis for characterising some of the building materials used in it. The aim is to gain a better understanding of the raw materials, labour, and production methods employed by the Jesuits in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. To this end, six fragments containing brick, render, and paint layers were studied by X-ray diffraction and using optical and scanning electron microscopies. Our results show that the ceramics differed solely in terms of their firing temperature, while the mortars were either air lime- or gypsum-based. The paints, mainly lime-based with clays, have similar mineralogical compositions, with some differences in colour due to the presence of goethite. This study demonstrates that the Jesuits, through their strategically situated settlements in the province of Córdoba, developed an economic system for the extraction and transport of raw materials, centred around the use of local resources. This, combined with construction techniques imported from Spain and adapted to local circumstances, was a sign of the adaptability of the Jesuit Order and their lasting influence on the region. Understanding the materials and techniques used by the Jesuits provides valuable insight into the methods of construction employed in historical buildings, offering key perspectives for their conservation. Moreover, it highlights the significance of local resource management in the longevity and preservation of these architectural works.

The Archaeology and Cultural Heritage of the Mafia Archipelago, Tanzania: Recommendations for Conservation and Management

ABSTRACT This paper reflects on the status of conservation and management of the cultural heritage of the Mafia archipelago, Tanzania, by examining six sites: the stone town sites of Kisimani Mafia and Kua, Ukunju Cave, Mwamba Ukuta, Chole Island ruins, and Bwejuu Island. These sites constitute a rich archaeological record, extending from ancient time through the medieval to the recent past. Mafia’s rich cultural heritage has attracted multiple phases of archaeological research since the mid-1950s. Despite being well known, the archipelago’s heritage places face serious conservation and management challenges of both natural and anthropogenic origins. Natural challenges include severe wave erosion, while anthropogenic ones include looting and relentless pressure from development projects. We propose specific recommendations for addressing these challenges, underpinning the need to develop sustainable heritage tourism that will stimulate community heritage awareness and promote conservation.

A Bronze Age town in the Khaybar walled oasis: Debating early urbanization in Northwestern Arabia.

Recent exploration of the Khaybar oasis by the Khaybar Longue Durée Archaeological Project (AFALULA-RCU-CNRS) has led to the discovery of an exceptional Bronze Age fortified site called al-Natah. For the first time in Northwestern Arabia, the characteristics of a third/second-millennium-BCE settlement can be assessed over a large area. Preliminary archaeological survey and soundings have revealed a fortified 2.6-hectares town built around 2400-2000 BCE which lasted until at least 1500 BCE and possibly 1300 BCE-but with possible interruptions-, functionally subdivided into a residential area, a probable decision-making zone and a necropolis. The nucleated dwellings were constructed following a standard plan and were connected by small streets. By comparison with neighboring oasis centers, we suggest that Northwestern Arabia during the Bronze Age-largely dominated by pastoral nomadic groups and already integrated into long-distance trade networks-was dotted with interconnected monumental walled oases centered around small fortified towns. And by comparison with the contemporary situation in the Southern Levant, we also envisage that the archaeological record bears witness to a 'low urbanization' (or 'slow urbanism'), indigenous to North Arabia, evidencing weak but increasing social complexity through the Early and Middle Bronze Ages.

Late-Holocene hydroclimatic change and its effect on human activity at Xiada Co on the western Tibetan Plateau

The scarcity of paleoclimate records in the western Tibetan Plateau (TP) hinders our understanding of how environmental evolution affects past human population, agriculture, and animal husbandry. Here, we utilized a range of materials to investigate the impact of climate change on human activities in the Xiada Co basin on the western TP during the Late-Holocene. We presented a continuous compound-specific hydrogen isotope record of sedimentary leaf waxes (δ2Hwax) from a sediment core of Xiada Co, and compared it to XRF core-scanning elements, brGDGT-based mean annual air temperature (MAAT) record, and fecal stanol-based human population proxy record from the same sediment core, as well as archeological evidence from the TP. The δ2Hwax exhibited a sustained increasing trend during the period from 4700 to 900 cal yr BP, followed by a generalized decrease in δ2Hwax values during 900–0 cal yr BP. The multi-proxy analysis of Xiada Co sediments revealed that the δ2Hwax values mainly reflect changes in the ISM precipitation, and are also influenced to some extent by glacier meltwater. Furthermore, a warm and humid climate condition was conducive to human habitation. Appropriate adaptation strategies, such as the herding of cold-tolerant and dry-tolerant sheep and the cultivation of barley in the western TP, led to a surge in population density during 3400–2900 cal yr BP, despite the slightly deteriorated climate background. This study confirmed the importance of choosing the right adaptive strategies to cope with climate change for human survival and development on the Tibetan Plateau.

A Source of Confusion: New Archaeological Evidence for the Dorchester Aqueduct

Abstract The Dorchester Aqueduct, located to the north-west of Dorchester (Durnovaria) in Dorset, is arguably the most famous and well-examined Roman watercourse in Britain. The aqueduct has been intermittently investigated over the course of the last 100 years, but most extensively during the 1990s. The upper stretches of the aqueduct and its source have, however, eluded archaeologists, with multiple routes and water sources being suggested. A new programme of geophysical and topographic survey, combined with targeted investigation together with a reappraisal of the excavations from the 1990s, has provided additional evidence for the route of the aqueduct, extending its course for a further two kilometres to Notton on the River Frome.