Aqueous Film-forming Foam Research Articles

The Mathematical Model Based on the Parameters of Simulation Results Predicts the Fire Extinguishing Resource Demand of Naval Fires

In recent years, due to the diversity of fire scenes in ports and ships, the problem of fire command is complicated. In the case of power failure, the original command platform and fire extinguishing system will not be able to be used normally, or the fire extinguishing resources carried by the ship when it is on fire cannot be used. In the traditional firefighting ability research, there is no clear measure of firefighting ability, resulting in inaccurate calculation results. By corresponding to the quantity and composition of resources for the study of fire extinguishing capability, the combination of the fire dynamics simulation software PyroSim2020 and a calculation model that converts its resources into the total amount and flow of fire extinguishing agent can be provided. Based on the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), a firefighting demand grade calculation and judgment model was established, which included five factors: fire scale, combustion material characteristics, foam extinguishing agent performance, firefighting object characteristics, and external factors. It concluded that the demand assignment values of each index element were 2, 5, 6, 9, and 10, and further proposed the grade judgment criteria for the calculation results of comprehensive fire demand. Through the quantitative simulation of firefighting demand based on the fire scenario and calculation model test of the consumption prediction of cooperative firefighting equipment, it can also provide a strategic reference for related cooperative fire rescue.

Adsorbability of a Wide Range of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances on Granular Activated Carbon, Ion Exchange Resin, and Surface Modified Clay

The increased detection of understudied per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in environmental matrices has highlighted the need to evaluate the treatability of a wide-range of PFAS by sorption-based processes. This study investigated the efficacy of three commercial adsorbents (i.e., granular activated carbon (GAC), surface modified clay (SMC), and anionic exchange resin (AER)) for the removal of a wide range of cationic, zwitterionic, and anionic PFAS from an aqueous film forming foam (AFFF)-impacted groundwater employing rapid small-scale column tests (RSSCTs) coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and suspect screening analysis (SQ). AER exhibited later breakthrough times for the majority of anionic and zwitterionic PFAS compared to SMC and GAC. However, both AER and SMC exhibited negligible removal of cationic PFAS presumably due to the reliance of these adsorbents on electrostatic interactions and the counteraction of hydrophobic forces caused by the repulsion between cationic PFAS and positively charged surfaces of AER and SMC. GAC, being a non-selective adsorbent, was largely unaffected by the ionic charge of the evaluated PFAS with molecular structure having a bigger impact on adsorbability. The detection of a variety of PFAS classes in the investigated AFFF-impacted groundwater enabled assessment of the relative impact of chemical structure on adsorptive removal of PFAS. Chain-length dependent adsorption was observed across all investigated anionic and zwitterionic PFAS classes. The PFAS structures possessing hydroxyl and/or methyl functional groups exhibited later breakthrough times compared to their homologues lacking these functional groups and cyclic/unsaturated structures were removed less efficiently compared to their linear/saturated homologues. In the case of perfluoroalkyl acid (PFAA)-derivative structures, hydrogen-substituted classes (i.e., H-PFAAs) were removed more efficiency than PFAAs while keto-substituted structures (i.e., K-PFSA) and pentahydrido-fluoroalkane sulfates (PeH-FAOS) exhibited lower adsorbability compared to PFAAs for all adsorbents. Oxa-PFAAs (O-PFSA; isomer class of PFA-OS) on the other hand demonstrated higher adsorbability compared to PFAAs in the case of AER-like adsorbents, while this trend was reversed for GAC.

Non-target screening reveals 124 PFAS at an AFFF-impacted field site in Germany specified by novel systematic terminology.

The uncontrolled release of aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) ingredients during a major fire incident in Reilingen, Germany, in 2008 led to significant soil and groundwater contamination. As the identity of fluorochemical surfactants in AFFF are often veiled due to company secrets, it is important to characterize AFFF contaminations and their impact on the environment comprehensively. In this study, we adapted a systematic approach combining a suitable extraction method with liquid chromatography high-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) for an extensive non-targeted analysis. Our analysis identified 124 per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from 42 subclasses in the contaminated soil (confidence levels of identification between 1 and 3). Typical for AFFF-impacted field sites, these included anionic, cationic, and zwitterionic substances with perfluoroalkyl chains spanning from 3 to 14 carbon atoms. Furthermore, we identified 1 previously unreported substance, and detected 9 PFAS subclasses for the first time in soil. AFFFs have long been employed to extinguish large hydrocarbon fires, yet their environmental consequences remain a concern. This study sheds light on the complex composition of AFFFs at this particularly contaminated area, emphasizing the necessity for extensive contaminant characterization as sound basis for informed management strategies to mitigate their adverse effects. AFFF PFAS are often named differently in the literature, leading to inconsistency in terminology. To address this issue, we introduced partially new terminology for AFFF-related PFAS to establish consistent terminology, to facilitate communication of identified compounds, and to ensure that the chemical structure can be directly derived from acronyms.

Study on the relationship between surface tension and dilational visco‐elasticity with foam stability

AbstractThe replacement of fluorine‐free foam is imminent, but to date, no fluorine‐free foam has reached comparable fire extinguishing performance to AFFF (aqueous film forming foam). The stability of firefighting foam significantly affects its extinguishing performance. In order to better understand the influence of foam formulation physical properties on foam stability, we correlate the foam stability with surface tension and dilational visco‐elasticity based on the AFFF formulation. The results show that, the foam stability rising steadily with the decrease of surface tension, which indicates that low surface tension favors the improvement of foam stability. However, when at the studied highest surface tension, the foam stability elevates slightly instead, demonstrating the surface tension is not the determinant of foam stability. By contrast, the dilational visco‐elasticity shows a closer correlation with foam stability for the consistent tendency. In the case of constantly changing disturbance frequency, the interface dilational elasticity shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing with the rise of disturbance frequency, whereas the interface dilational viscosity is completely opposite. Different relaxation processes show up for different samples. More attention can be paid to the regulation of dilational visco‐elasticity in the development of fluorine‐free foams, so as to improve their extinguishing ability.

Physicochemical Properties of Aqueous Film-Forming Foams Based on Short Fluorocarbon Surfactant-Graft Hydrophilic Functional Groups.

The key components of aqueous film foaming foam extinguishing agents are fluorocarbon surfactants. Due to their toxicity and bioaccumulation, long-chain fluorocarbon surfactants have limited application prospects. Therefore, it is of great significance to study short-chain fluorocarbon surfactants as substitutes. In this work, three short-chain fluorocarbon surfactants with various hydrophilic groups and corresponding fire extinguishing agents were prepared. The physical and chemical properties of a single system and mixed system of fluorocarbon surfactants, including surface activity, spreading property, foaming property, 25% drainage time, and AFFF fire extinguishing property, were studied. For the results of the mixed systems, it was found that the critical micelle concentrations did not exceed 3.97 mmol/L and the minimum surface tension did not exceed 17.21 mN/m. Fluorocarbon surfactant solutions spread effectively on the surface of all fuels. The foam expansion is greater than 7.2, and the shortest of all 25% drainage times is 3.31 min. The extinguishing time of AFFFs on several fuel fires does not exceed 55 s, and the shortest burn-back time is 15.08 min. Anyways, these results indicate that the grafted hydrophilic short-chain fluorocarbon surfactants have significant application prospects in AFFFs.

Shift from legacy to emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances for watershed management along the coast of China

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and their short-chain alternatives have attracted world-wide attention due to their widespread presence and persistence in the environment. However, the sources, environmental fate, and driving forces of PFAS in coastal ecosystems remain poorly understood. In this study, the spatial distribution, source apportionment, and driving mechanisms of PFAS were investigated through a comprehensive analysis of water samples collected along the China's coastline. The concentrations of Σ25PFAS in water samples followed a general pattern, with higher levels observed in northern coastal zones of China than the south, ranging from 0.72 to 1872.21 ng L−1. PFOA and PFBA were dominant. Emerging short-chain PFAS, such as PFBS, PFBA, F-53B and GenX, were frequently detected, with detection rates of 97%, 99%, 95% and 77%, respectively. This indicated a shift in coastal PFAS contamination from legacy compounds to emerging short-chain alternatives. Source apportionment using the Positive Matrix Factorization model identified key contributors to PFAS pollution, including textile production, volatile precursors, precious metal industries, aqueous film-forming foam, metal-plating, electrochemical fluorination, and fluoropolymer manufacturing. Additionally, PFAS concentrations were significantly positively correlated with cultivated land, urban area, and wastewater discharge, while negatively correlated with annual precipitation and woodland coverage (p < 0.05). Socio-economic development was identified as a major driver of PFAS emissions, while the hydrological factors and vegetation coverage can significantly enhance watershed resilience against PFAS pollution.

Making waves: The progress of management strategies for cleaning and rinsing of PFAS-impacted fire suppression systems

Aircraft rescue firefighting (ARFF) vehicles often contain residual levels of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) due to the global use of legacy and current use of aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) for class B firefighting. However, numerous countries are transitioning to fluorine-free foam (F3) alternatives. There is, thus, an urgent need to develop efficient methods to rinse and clean interior ARFF surfaces thereby avoiding expensive replacement costs and preventing further discharge of PFAS to the environment. However, the unique self-assembly behavior of amphiphilic PFAS is a complicating factor that can result in measurable levels of PFAS within replacement F3 following cleanout efforts (i.e., the rebound effect). This Making Waves article aims to elucidate the emerging challenges associated with cleanout of impacted ARFF vehicles and introduce the current efforts for PFAS management of rinsate derived from cleanout of impacted fire suppression infrastructure.

Quantitative assessment of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in aqueous film forming foam (AFFF)-impacted soils: a comparison of analytical protocols.

Quantitatively assessing all per- and poly fluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in an environmental sample, particularly soils impacted by aqueous film forming foams (AFFFs), has proven to be a challenge. To make such an assessment, a comprehensive sample processing procedure and analytical tool must be used. However, doubts remain whether current analytical tools such as high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) with targeted quantitation and semi-quantitative analysis of suspects (Semi-Q HRMS) or total organic fluorine (TOF) are capable of accurately quantifying all non-polymeric PFASs in a sample. Further, current comprehensive soil PFAS HRMS methods are incompatible with TOF, preventing direct comparisons of the approaches. To enable direct comparisons, a soil sample processing procedure that is comprehensive as well as compatible with multiple analytical tools is needed. In this study, we assessed the performance of a previously developed soil PFAS method, EPA Method 1633, and a hybrid solid phase extraction (SPE)-based method for characterizing AFFF-impacted soil composites while maintaining compatibility with multiple analytical tools (i.e., Semi-Q HRMS and TOF). Comparative results for AFFF-impacted soil composites indicate analysis via EPA Method 1633 (as compared to the novel hybrid method) results in maybeup to 75% of the PFAS mass being missed by only analyzing for compounds listed in EPA Method 1633. Simply expanding the EPA Method 1633 analyte list was insufficient to account for the missing mass: up to 69% of the PFAS mass was still missed because of EPA Method 1633's extraction and cleanup bias. Additionally, the novel method developed offers a more comprehensive analysis with minimal reductions to sensitivity when compared to those reported in EPA Method 1633, with limits of quantification ranging from 0.12 to 2.4 ng/g as compared to 0.16-4.0 ng/g, respectively. For these reasons, an alternative hybrid SPE-based method is proposed for comprehensive evaluation of PFASs in AFFF-impacted soils.

Characterizing the Areal Extent of PFAS Contamination in Fish Species Downgradient of AFFF Source Zones.

Most monitoring programs next to large per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) sources focus on drinking water contamination near source zones. However, less is understood about how these sources affect downgradient hydrological systems and food webs. Here, we report paired PFAS measurements in water, sediment, and aquatic biota along a hydrological gradient away from source zones contaminated by the use of legacy aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) manufactured using electrochemical fluorination. Clustering analysis indicates that the PFAS composition characteristic of AFFF is detectable in water and fishes >8 km from the source. Concentrations of 38 targeted PFAS and extractable organofluorine (EOF) decreased in fishes downgradient of the AFFF-contaminated source zones. However, PFAS concentrations remained above consumption limits at all locations within the affected watershed. Perfluoroalkyl sulfonamide precursors accounted for approximately half of targeted PFAS in fish tissues, which explain >90% of EOF across all sampling locations. Suspect screening analyses revealed the presence of a polyfluoroketone pharmaceutical in fish species, and a fluorinated agrochemical in water that likely does not accumulate in biological tissues, suggesting the presence of diffuse sources such as septic system and agrochemical inputs throughout the watershed in addition to AFFF contamination. Based on these results, monitoring programs that consider all hydrologically connected regions within watersheds affected by large PFAS sources would help ensure public health protection.

Stimulating Acidimicrobium sp. Strain A6 in iron-rich, acidic sediments from AFFF-impacted sites for PFAS defluorination

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent and bioaccumulative contaminants that are widely used in industrial applications and consumer products and pose significant risks to ecosystems and human health. Acidimicrobium sp. Strain A6 (A6), which is common in acidic, and iron rich soils and sediments is capable of both anaerobic ammonium (NH4+) oxidation under iron reduction (Feammox) and defluorination of perfluorinated alkyl substances, such as perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs). This study investigates the potential for biostimulating A6 via the supply of NH4+ and ferric iron (Fe(III)) with the goal of defluorinating PFAAs. Sediment samples from acidic, iron-rich, AFFF (aqueous film forming foam) impacted sites were collected and incubated with added Fe(III) and NH4+. Quantitative PCR was used to track A6 numbers as well as dehalogenase and F− ion transporter genes during these incubations; changes in the microbial community structure were tracked through 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The findings reveal that the addition of Fe(III) and NH4+ stimulated the Feammox reaction and A6 growth and enhanced the degradation of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS). Results also show a significant presence and activity of the above-mentioned genes in these incubations. The insights gained from this study could inform bioremediation strategies for PFAS-contaminated environments, especially in geochemical settings that favor the presence of A6.

Determination of Toxicity at Different Trophic Levels of Aqueous Film-Forming Foams (AFFF) Used in Fire Fighting.

Aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), containing perfluorinated surfactants, can reach the environment. The objective of this study was to determine the ecotoxicity of AFFF, according to the type of fire to be fought (A1: 1.05g.L- 1, A2: 3.15g.L- 1 and A3: 6.30g.L- 1), to bioindicators of different trophic levels. For Artemia salina a toxic effect was observed at sample A1 (at concentrations of 100%), A2 (at concentrations above 25%) and A3 (at concentrations above 12.5%). For Lactuca sativa all samples affected the number of germinated seeds, speed and percentage of germination and root length. To the Eisenia fetida earthworm, samples A2 and A3 were considered toxic due to the percent avoidance being 70% and 100%, respectively. In Macaca mullata renal cell culture test, none of the samples were toxic by the MTT test. Therefore, it is necessary to develop methods for the safe use of AFFF by professionals.

Synthesis of reference standards for emerging sulfonamide PFAS precursors suspected in aqueous film-forming foams via a benzyl intermediate

Synthesis of reference standards for emerging sulfonamide PFAS precursors suspected in aqueous film-forming foams via a benzyl intermediate

Effect of nano-aluminum hydroxide on the liquid phase properties and fire-fighting foam performance of the mixed surfactants solution

Short-chain fluorocarbon surfactants show synergistic effects with hydrocarbon surfactants in foaming and foam stability. Nano-aluminum hydroxide (nano-ATH) was added as an additive to the short-chain fluorocarbon surfactant mixture solution, which was found to increase the surface tension and viscosity of the surfactant mixture solution, and decrease the foaming properties of the solution, as measured by Wilhelmy method, Waring Blender method and viscometer. By measuring zeta potential experiments, surfactant molecules were found to be adsorbed on nano-ATH through charge gravity, which increased the desorption energy of nano-ATH. Measuring the visco-elastic modulus of the solution by rheometer, it was found that nano-ATH increased the visco-elastic modulus of the surfactant mixture solution, which improved the foam's resistance to the external disturbances. Observed by the image analysis system on the foam, the uniform distribution of nano-ATH in the liquid film reduced the coarsening and coalescence speed of foam .Through the self-developed oil resistance test, nano-ATH enhanced the oil resistance stability and inhibition of fuel vapour diffusion of the foam by about 12%; through self-developed foam fire extinguishing and anti-burning tests, nano-ATH shortened the fire extinguishing time of the two-phase foam by 25%, and showed better fire extinguishing and anti-burning performance than the foam.

PFAS: The Journey from Wonder Chemicals to Environmental Nightmares and the Search for Solutions

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are diverse synthetic chemicals manufactured over seven decades. It is an aliphatic molecule with a basic hydrophobic structure of carbon and fluorine linked to a hydrophilic end group. Due to their physicochemical properties associated with the unique structure, PFAS has been used in a wide variety of applications including aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), paper, carpets, non-stick cookware, etc. as they make products resistant to water, heat, and stains. These molecules have drawn great attention recently for their unique properties, high stability and low degradability, and so-called “Forever Chemicals”. PFAS has the strongest carbon-fluorine bond which makes them persistent in the environment. Hence it contaminates natural resources and endangers public health. This review discusses the discovery, development, and evolution of PFAS from the wonder chemical era to a nightmare chemical era, exposure and its impacts on human health and the environment, current remediation techniques, and future trends of PFAS molecules and related products. The primary objective of this review is to identify knowledge gaps on PFAS contamination, remediation methods, and possible PFAS alternatives.

Spectral induced polarization (SIP) measurements across a PFAS-contaminated source zone

There is a need to develop field-scale, in situ screening technologies for assessing variations in aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) concentrations in soils at former fire training and storage sites. Field-scale Spectral Induced Polarization (SIP) geophysical measurements were acquired on a transect crossing an AFFF source zone. Soil samples were acquired to determine variations in poly- and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) concentrations in soils, characterize soil texture, and create triplicate soil columns for laboratory SIP measurements. Field and laboratory observations show that SIP measurements are sensitive to the concentration of AFFF constituents associated with soil pore surface area. The specific polarizability and the phase of the SIP measurements for the laboratory samples were linearly correlated with total soil-sorbed PFAS concentration. The phase from the field SIP measurements was highest over the location of maximum PFAS concentration measured on the laboratory samples. However, a significant correlation between field-measured phase and laboratory-measured total PFAS concentration still needs to be established. These observations, along with the demonstrated sensitivity of the SIP response to the removal of soil PFAS using a methanol wash procedure, support the case for SIP characterization of AFFF source zones.

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Duluth, Minnesota Area: Exposure to and Biomarker Responses in Tree Swallows Relative to Known Fire-Fighting Foam Sources.

Tree swallow nest boxes were deployed at sites proximal to two putative aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) sources in the Duluth, MN area, as well as along the St. Louis River and a reference lake for comparative purposes in 2019, 2020 and 2021. The two AFFF sites were the current Duluth Air National Guard Base (ANG) and the Lake Superior College Emergency Response Training Center. Between 13 and 40 per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), depending on year, were detected and quantified in tree swallow egg, nestling carcasses, and stomach contents. Assessments were made of oxidative stress and ethoxyresorufin-O-dealkylase activity in liver tissue, thyroid hormone levels in plasma and thyroid glands, DNA damage in red blood cells, and two measures of immune response (haptoglobin-like activity and immunoglobulin) in plasma of the nestlings. Additionally, other contaminants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls, legacy organochlorine pesticides, and trace elements, were assessed at sites with no previous data. Total egg PFAS concentrations at the ANG site and north of that site were 30-40 times higher than at the reference lake, while nestling PFAS concentrations were 10-15 times higher. In contrast, the St. Louis River sites had slightly, but non-statistically significant, elevated egg and nestling PFAS concentrations relative to the reference lake (2-5 times higher). One PFAS, perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), was higher, as a proportion of total PFAS, at sites with a known AFFF source compared to the reference lake, as well as compared to sites along the St. Louis River with mainly urban and industrial sources of PFAS. The ratio of total carboxylates to total sulfonates also distinguished between PFAS sources. There were few to no differences in biomarker responses among sites, and no association with PFAS exposure.

Nontarget Analysis Combined with TOP Assay Reveals a Significant Portion of Unknown PFAS Precursors in Firefighting Foams Currently Used in China.

Firefighting foam is a significant source of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pollution, yet the PFAS profiles in foam formulations, particularly in China, remain unclear. Here, using target and nontarget analyses, we investigated 50 target PFAS in firefighting foams currently utilized in China, identified novel PFAS, and discovered new end products through a total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay. We identified a total of 54 PFAS compounds (spanning 34 classes and containing seven novel PFAS) with total PFAS concentrations of 0.03-21.21 mM. Among seven novel PFAS, four PFAS met persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity criteria, and another PFAS had the highest ToxPi score among the identified 54 PFAS. Moreover, the predominant PFAS varied significantly in the studied foams and differed markedly from those used in other countries. After the TOP assay, nontarget analysis uncovered 1.1-55.5% more PFAS precursors and 8.25-55.5% more fluorine equivalents compared to traditional target analysis combined with TOP assay. Specifically, three double-bond perfluorinated alcohols were identified for the first time as end products of the TOP assay. This study provides crucial information for pollution control and risk assessment associated with PFAS in firefighting foam applications and emphasizes the importance of combining nontarget analysis with TOP assay in uncovering unknown PFAS precursors.

Closing PFAS analytical gaps: Inter-method evaluation of total organofluorine techniques for AFFF-impacted water

Multiple poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are present in aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF) used for firefighting activities. Currently, no single analytical technique provides a complete accounting of total PFASs or total organofluorine content in AFFF-contaminated samples. To provide insight into the performance of existing methods, we compared ten previously described PFAS measurement techniques. In AFFF-amended tap water, US EPA Methods 533 and 1633, adsorbable organic fluorine with particle induced gamma emission spectroscopy (AOF-PIGE) and fluorine-19 nuclear magnetic resonance (19F NMR) provided similar estimates of total fluorine. The total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assay, suspect screening, and adsorbable organic fluorine with combustion ion chromatography (AOF-CIC) yielded estimates of total organic fluorine that were about two to three times higher than the other techniques. Proximate to AFFF sources, suspect screening and modified EPA Method 1633 yielded higher results, while the TOP assay results were between the other two sets of analyses. Further from sources, suspect screening, modified EPA Method 1633, and the TOP assay yielded similar results that were 4-fold higher than results from targeted quantification methods, such as EPA Method 1633. These results are consistent with expectations about PFAS behavior and inform the selection of analytical techniques used for PFAS contamination characterization efforts.

Assessing the effects of fluorine-free and PFAS-containing firefighting foams on development and behavioral responses using a zebrafish-based platform

Significant progress has been made in developing fluorine-free firefighting foams (F3) as alternatives to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)-containing aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF) to help eliminate the health and environmental concerns linked to PFAS exposure. However, developing viable F3 options hinges on a thorough assessment of potential risks alongside the technical performance evaluations. This study showcases the capability of a zebrafish-based platform to discern the developmental and behavioral toxicities associated with exposure to one AFFF and two F3 formulations. To facilitate direct exposure to the chemicals, embryos were enzymatically dechorionated and then exposed to the diluted formulations (6–120 hours post fertilization (hpf)) at concentrations folding from 0.1% of the manufacturer-recommended working concentrations. The exposure regimen also included daily automated media changes (50%) and mortality assessments (24 and 120 hpf). At 120 hpf, a comprehensive assessment encompassing overall development, prevalence of morphological defects, and behavioral responses to acute stressors (visual, acoustic, and peripheral irritant) was conducted. Exposure to both F3s significantly increased larval mortalities to percentages exceeding 90%, whereas AFFF exposures did not cause any significant effect. Overall development, marked by total larval length, was significantly impacted following exposures to all foams. Behavioral responses to acute stressors were also significantly altered following exposures to both F3s, whereas the AFFF did not alter behavior at the concentrations tested. Our findings demonstrate toxicities associated with tested F3 formulations that encompass several endpoints and highlight the utility of the proposed platform in evaluating the developmental toxicities of current and future foam formulations.

One-step preparation and characterization of an imidazolium-contained fluorocarbon surfactant and its potential application in aqueous film-forming foam

One-step preparation and characterization of an imidazolium-contained fluorocarbon surfactant and its potential application in aqueous film-forming foam