Appraisal Tendencies Research Articles

Angry men and disgusted women: An evolutionary approach to the influence of emotions on risk taking

Despite considerable research on the influence of emotions on risk taking, investigators have yet to agree on an explanatory framework. Reviewing the literature, we identify problems with popular valence-based approaches. In contrast, Lerner and Keltner’s (2000, 2001) appraisal-tendencies theory has been supported, and usefully generates testable predictions regarding the effects of specific emotions. Nevertheless, though premised on the assumption that functional attributes differentiate emotions, this theory overlooks the ultimate goals that emotions serve. Adopting an evolutionary perspective, we predicted that, despite having similar appraisal tendencies, anger and disgust would have opposite effects on risk taking, since anger functions to deter transgression through aggression, while disgust functions to ward off contamination; an evolutionary perspective also led us to predict sex differences in these effects. Employing a gambling task involving substantial real stakes, we demonstrate that anger increases risk taking in men, while disgust decreases risk taking in women.

Political tolerance and coming to psychological closure following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks: an integrative approach.

This study tested hypotheses generated from an integrative model of political tolerance that derived hypotheses from a number of different social psychological theories (e.g., appraisal tendency theory, intergroup emotion theory, and value protection models) to explain political tolerance following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. A national field study (N = 550) found that immediate post attack anger and fear had different implications for political tolerance 4 months later. The effects of anger on political tolerance were mediated through moral outrage and outgroup derogation, whereas the effects of fear on political tolerance were mediated through personal threat, ingroup enhancement, and value affirmation. Value affirmation led to increased political tolerance, whereas moral outrage, outgroup derogation, ingroup enhancement, and personal threat led to decreased political tolerance. Value affirmation, moral outrage, and outgroup derogation also facilitated post-9/11 psychological closure and increased psychological closure led to greater political tolerance.

Violent Behavior: A Measure of Emotional Upset?

Over the past ten years, sociologists have broadened their view of what counts as an appropriate measure of mental health. This reflects a growing recognition that individuals express emotional upset in various ways. For example, some individuals are more likely to become depressed in response to stress while others are more likely to drink heavily. Contemporary studies often include measures of "internalizing" (i.e., more feeling-based measures) and "externalizing" (i.e., more behavioral measures) styles of psychopathology, especially when studying group differences in mental health. Alcohol abuse is the classic measure of externalized distress in sociological research. In this paper, we present a theoretical argument and supporting empirical evidence to argue that violent behavior should be included as a measure of externalized distress in response to stress. Our study suggests that violent behavior is a more likely response to stress among individuals with particular coping and appraisal tendencies. Specifically, violent behavior may be a more likely response to stress among individuals who tend to appraise situations as threatening while also repressing any emotional response to stress. We contend that, since some groups may be more likely than others to respond to stress with violence, it is particularly important to include measures of violent behavior when studying group difference in distress.

Fear, anger, and risk.

Drawing on an appraisal-tendency framework (J. S. Lerner & D. Keltner, 2000), the authors predicted and found that fear and anger have opposite effects on risk perception. Whereas fearful people expressed pessimistic risk estimates and risk-averse choices, angry people expressed optimistic risk estimates and risk-seeking choices. These opposing patterns emerged for naturally occurring and experimentally induced fear and anger. Moreover, estimates of angry people more closely resembled those of happy people than those of fearful people. Consistent with predictions, appraisal tendencies accounted for these effects: Appraisals of certainty and control moderated and (in the case of control) mediated the emotion effects. As a complement to studies that link affective valence to judgment outcomes, the present studies highlight multiple benefits of studying specific emotions.

Fear, anger, and risk.

Drawing on an appraisal-tendency framework (J. S. Lerner & D. Keltner, 2000), the authors predicted and found that fear and anger have opposite effects on risk perception. Whereas fearful people expressed pessimistic risk estimates and risk-averse choices, angry people expressed optimistic risk estimates and risk-seeking choices. These opposing patterns emerged for naturally occurring and experimentally induced fear and anger. Moreover, estimates of angry people more closely resembled those of happy people than those of fearful people. Consistent with predictions, appraisal tendencies accounted for these effects: Appraisals of certainty and control moderated and (in the case of control) mediated the emotion effects. As a complement to studies that link affective valence to judgment outcomes, the present studies highlight multiple benefits of studying specific emotions.

The role of culture in emotion-antecedent appraisal.

Do respondents in different cultures appraise emotion-antecedent events differently? Are similar appraisal profiles associated with the same emotions across cultures? These questions were studied for 7 emotions in 37 countries. Results show rather high convergence across geopolitical regions with respect to emotion specific profiles, suggesting universality of the appraisal mechanism. Empirical profiles corresponded in large measure to theoretical predictions. There were sizable differences between geopolitical regions with respect to general appraisal tendencies. Respondents in Africa tended to appraise events as more immoral, more unfair or unjust, and more externally caused. Respondents in Latin America tended to appraise emotion-antecedent events as less immoral than those in other regions. To find potential explanatory factors, a number of key country variables related to climate, cultural values, and socioeconomic-demographic factors were examined.

Prediction of stress appraisals from mastery, extraversion, neuroticism, and general appraisal tendencies

Several personality dimensions (mastery, extraversion, and neuroticism) and a new General Appraisal Measure were used to predict stress appraisals made by college students in specific situations. Using multiple-regression techniques, mastery and general appraisal tendencies predicted appraisals for an intellectual task. Path analysis supported a structural model with general appraisal tendencies as a mediator between mastery and specific appraisal. In the second study mastery, extraversion, neuroticism, and general appraisal tendencies predicted appraisals for an academic stressor. Path analysis again supported the mediational nature of general appraisal tendencies from personality variables to specific appraisal. We discuss a potential causal mechanism between personality dimensions and appraisal patterns.