Pharmaceutical Applications Research Articles

Phytochemical Analysis and Biological Evaluation of Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees, from Nigeria

The medicinal plant, Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees, used in Nigeria's ethno-medicine, was investigated for its radical scavenging and antimicrobial properties, as well as its phytochemical composition, using gas chromatography-mass spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis. In vitro antioxidant activity of the methanol extract of the whole plant was tested through four different assays: DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and NOx. The GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of neophthadiene (29.42%), followed by ergost-5-en-3-ol (10.57%), and methyl sterate (7.29%) as the major compounds present in the methanol extract of Andrographis paniculata. The methanol extract showed promising antioxidant activity compared with the reference (ascorbic acid). It was observed that the activity was concentration dependent, and values of 86.12±0.03, 90.18±0.03, 80.20±0.04, and 92.15±0.06 were obtained for DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and NOx, respectively, under the same condition. All the tested bacteria (gram positive and gram negative) were inhibited by the methanol extract of Andrographis paniculata, except Proteus mirabilis, which showed a resistance at lower concentrations (0.25 mg/ml and 0.50 mg/ml). These findings suggest the bioactive potentials of Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees, supporting its traditional use in Nigerian ethnomedicine and highlighting potential applications in pharmaceuticals.

Review On Various Protocol To Access Imidazole And It’s Versatile Biological Activities

Imidazole occupies a significant role in heterocyclic chemistry, with its derivatives drawing increasing interest recently due to their diverse chemistry and pharmacological properties. It is a nitrogen containing heterocyclic ring crucial in both biological processes and pharmaceutical applications. Consequently, imidazole compounds have captivated researchers for over a century, serving as a compelling source of investigation. These derivatives exhibit a wide array of biological activities, including antibacterial, anticancer, anti-tubercular, anti-diabetic activity, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory activity and anti-HIV effects. This review aims to chronicle the historical evolution of imidazole’s biological activities and the work reported on the synthesis of imidazole derivatives. A multitude of imidazole derivatives are available and the incorporation of the imidazole nucleus remains a pivotal strategy in synthetic drug discovery.

Dynamic Kidney Organoid Microphysiological Analysis Platform.

Kidney organoids, replicating human development, pathology, and drug responses, are a promising model for advancing bioscience and pharmaceutical innovation. However, reproducibility, accuracy, and quantification challenges hinder their broader utility for advanced biological and pharmaceutical applications. Herein, we present a dynamic kidney organoid microphysiological analysis platform (MAP), designed to enhance organoid modeling and assays within physiologically relevant environments, thereby expanding their utility in advancing kidney physiology and pathology research. First, precise control of the dynamic microenvironment in MAP enhances the ability to fine-tune nephrogenic intricacies, facilitating high-throughput and reproducible human kidney organoid development. Also, MAP's miniaturization of kidney organoids significantly advances pharmaceutical research by allowing for detailed analysis of entire nephron segments, which is crucial for assessing the nephrotoxicity and safety of drugs. Furthermore, the MAP's application in disease modeling faithfully recapitulates pathological development and functions as a valuable testbed for therapeutic exploration in polycystic kidney diseases. We envision the kidney organoid MAP enhancing pharmaceutical research, standardizing processes, and improving analytics, thereby elevating the quality and utility of organoids in biology, pharmacology, precision medicine, and education.

Three-Dimensional Printing Technology in Drug Design and Development: Feasibility, Challenges, and Potential Applications.

The present investigation evaluates the impact of 3D-printing technology on the design of pharmaceutical drugs, considering the feasibility issues and problems concerning technological, pharmaceutical, and clinical matters. This paper aims to review how 3D printing can modify the traditional manufacturing of drugs with personalized medicine-therapy outcomes being individualized and optimized, hence improving patients' compliance. The historical development of 3D printing from rapid prototyping to advanced pharmaceutical applications is discussed. A comparison is then made between traditional drug manufacturing approaches and the different techniques of 3D printing, including stereolithography, material extrusion, and binder jetting. Feasibility is assessed based on clinical trials and studies evaluating the efficacy, safety, bioavailability, and cost-effectiveness of 3D-printed drugs. Current evidence indicates that material selection, regulatory barriers, and scalability issues are some of the major challenges to be overcome for wider acceptance. Other matters, such as ethical issues concerning patient data privacy, the misuse of 3D-printing technology, and technical complexities related to pharmaceutical 3D printing, are discussed further. Future applications also include bioprinting and in situ printing together with their implications for personalized drug delivery, which will also be discussed. This review stresses that intersectoral collaboration and the updating of regulatory frameworks are a must to overcome the barriers that confront 3D-printing applications in drug development. can could be an opportunity for innovative licensing and manufacturing techniques in pharmaceutical product development that can change the paradigm of personalized medicine through modern printing techniques.

Gamma irradiation green synthesis of (polyacrylamide/chitosan/silver nanoparticles) hydrogel nanocomposites and their using as antifungal against Candida albicans and anti-cancer modulator

Silver nanoparticles-loaded hydrogel nanocomposites are exploited for medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. Hydrogel nanocomposites were prepared from acrylamide (Am), chitosan (CS) and AgNO3 utilizing gamma rays. Diverse variables were applied in preparation of silver nanoparticles-laoded hydrogel nanocomposites of (PAm/CS)-AgNPs such as influence of radiation dose and influnece of CS concentration. Diverse techniques were utilized to characterize hydrogel nanocomposites; Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Results confirmed formation of silver nanoparticles-loaded hydrogel nanocomposites of (PAm/CS)-AgNPs. Antifungal activity of (PAm/CS)-AgNPs hydrogel nanocomposites on viability of C. albicans was esitmated. Results displayed the efficient microbial inhibition activity of treatment against C. albicans compared to control. Furthermore, (PAm/CS)-AgNPs hydrogel nanocomposite against cervical cancer HeLa cell line was investigated. Cytotoxicity of (PAm/CS)-AgNPs hydrogel nanocomposites on prior cancer cell line empolyed to prohibition of cell growth assesssed by MTT test. HeLa cancer cell is treated by (PAm/CS)-AgNPs for 48 h exposed a potential apoptotic activity by noticeable up-regulation of p53 gene expression. Moreover, anticancer activity was investigated by down-regulation of platelet-based growth variable receptor beta (PDGFR-β), Bcl2, Cathepsine, and MMP-2 gene expression. antioxidant activity was investigated and results showed antioxidant activity of (PAm/CS) hydrogel and (PAm/CS)-AgNPs hydrogel nanocomposite are 87.8% and 62.9%, respectively.

Transglutaminase from Asian seabass liver: purification, characterization and cross-linking activity against natural actomyosin

The study investigated the purification and characterization of transglutaminase (TGase) from Asian seabass liver. In addition, protein cross-linking ability of partially purified TGase was also elucidated against the natural actomyosin extracted from threadfin bream surimi. During ammonium sulfate fractionation, the highest specific activity (11.31 ± 0.17 units/mg protein) was obtained from the 80–100% ammonium sulfate (AS) fraction (partially purified TGase; pTGase). Purity increased 1.46 times compared to crude samples with a 73% yield. Further purification using DEAE-Sepharose enhanced the specific activity (904.71 ± 4.65units/mg protein) by 117.19-fold as compared to the crude sample. The molecular weight (MW) of the purified TGase was 43.4 kDa, which was slightly different than the MW determined by SDS-PAGE (41.1 kDa). Optimal TGase activity was found at 45–50 °C and pH 8, with significant declines beyond these ranges. Furthermore, TGase maintained activity (80%) when heated till 55 °C, whereas it showed wide-range pH stability. NaCl and CaCl2 at 3% and 20 mM, respectively enhanced TGase activity. When natural actomyosin (NAM) was treated with pTGase at various concentrations (1–10 unit/mg protein), decreasing solubility and ɛ-amino groups confirmed its cross-linking ability. The result was also supported by the formation of aggregates of NAM proteins as determined by transmission electron microscopic images. Thus, Asian seabass liver could be a new source of purified and partially purified TGase, which can be employed for various food and pharmaceutical applications.

Environmental determinants of venom variability in captive scorpions: A comprehensive analysis of diet, temperature, and humidity effects

This study examines the effects of environmental conditions on venom production in four prevalent scorpion species in Morocco: Androctonus amoreuxi, Androctonus mauretanicus, Buthus mardochei, and Scorpio maurus. The research focuses on how climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, and diet—specifically mealworm consumption—affect physical parameters including size and weight, and ultimately venom yield. We conducted a comprehensive investigation involving the capture, acclimatization, and systematic venom extraction from 480 scorpions. Our findings indicate considerable variations in venom volumes, with Scorpio maurus showing a reduced yield compared to Androctonus amoreuxi. Key determinants of venom production were identified as humidity and dietary intake, pointing to significant implications for interspecific diversity and acclimatization processes. These insights have crucial implications for medical and pharmaceutical applications, emphasizing the need for species-specific husbandry protocols to optimize venom extraction for therapeutic use.

Towards the prediction of drug solubility in binary solvent mixtures at various temperatures using machine learning

Drug solubility is an important parameter in the drug development process, yet it is often tedious and challenging to measure, especially for expensive drugs or those available in small quantities. To alleviate these challenges, machine learning (ML) has been applied to predict drug solubility as an alternative approach. However, the majority of existing ML research has focused on the predictions of aqueous solubility and/or solubility at specific temperatures, which restricts the model applicability in pharmaceutical development. To bridge this gap, we compiled a dataset of 27,000 solubility datapoints, including solubility of small molecules measured in a range of binary solvent mixtures under various temperatures. Next, a panel of ML models were trained on this dataset with their hyperparameters tuned using Bayesian optimization. The resulting top-performing models, both gradient boosted decision trees (light gradient boosting machine and extreme gradient boosting), achieved mean absolute errors (MAE) of 0.33 for LogS (S in g/100 g) on the holdout set. These models were further validated through a prospective study, wherein the solubility of four drug molecules were predicted by the models and then validated with in-house solubility experiments. This prospective study demonstrated that the models accurately predicted the solubility of solutes in specific binary solvent mixtures under different temperatures, especially for drugs whose features closely align within the solutes in the dataset (MAE < 0.5 for LogS). To support future research and facilitate advancements in the field, we have made the dataset and code openly available.Scientific contributionOur research advances the state-of-the-art in predicting solubility for small molecules by leveraging ML and a uniquely comprehensive dataset. Unlike existing ML studies that predominantly focus on solubility in aqueous solvents at fixed temperatures, our work enables prediction of drug solubility in a variety of binary solvent mixtures over a broad temperature range, providing practical insights on the modeling of solubility for realistic pharmaceutical applications. These advancements along with the open access dataset and code support significant steps in the drug development process including new molecule discovery, drug analysis and formulation.Graphical

Development and Evaluation of pH‐Responsive Microbeads Incorporated with Nickel Zinc Ferrite Nanoparticles for Controlled Release of Doxorubicin

AbstractThe development of a pH‐responsive, biocompatible polymeric carrier for controlled delivery of bioactive agents holds significant practical value for pharmaceutical applications. In this study, we used the gelation method to make pH‐responsive polymeric microbeads using sodium alginate (SA), poly(vinylpyrrolidone‐co‐vinyl acetate) (PVPVA), and nickel zinc ferrite (NZF) nanoparticles for controlled release of doxorubicin (DOX). The generated microbeads are characterized using various techniques, including Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Swelling studies reveal enhanced permeability at pH 6.4, and in vitro release studies demonstrate a higher release rate at pH 6.4 compared to pH 2.0. Cytotoxicity tests on MCF‐7 cells (a type of breast cancer cell line) showed that NZF‐loaded microbeads, especially SP‐NZFNPs‐DOX, were more effective than other carriers, indicating their potential usefulness in cancer treatment. Furthermore, biocompatibility tests demonstrate that the SA/PVPVA microbeads and nanoparticles are biocompatible with 3T3 fibroblasts. This study contributes valuable insights to the evolving landscape of nanotechnology in cancer treatment, emphasizing the synergistic role of NZF nanoparticles, SA, and PVPVA in optimizing drug delivery systems.

Antimicrobial Potential of Scorpion-Venom-Derived Peptides.

The frequent and irrational use of antibiotics by humans has led to the escalating rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) with a high rate of morbidity-mortality worldwide, which poses a challenge to the development of effective treatments. A large number of host defense peptides from different organisms have gained interest due to their broad antibacterial spectrum, rapid action, and low target resistance, implying that these natural sources might be a new alternative to antimicrobial drugs. As important effectors of prey capture, defense against other animal attacks, and competitor deterrence, scorpion venoms have been developed as important candidate sources for modern drug development. With the rapid progress of bioanalytical and high throughput sequencing techniques, more and more scorpion-venom-derived peptides, including disulfide-bridged peptides (DBPs) and non-disulfide-bridged peptides (NDBPs), have been recently identified as having massive pharmacological activities in channelopathies, pathogen infections, and cancer treatments. In this review, we summarize the molecular diversity and corresponding structural classification of scorpion venom peptides with antibacterial, antifungal, and/or antiparasitic activity. We also aim to improve the understanding of the underlying mechanisms by which scorpion-venom-derived peptides exert these antimicrobial functions, and finally highlight their key aspects and prospects for antimicrobial therapeutic or pharmaceutical application.

Recent Advances for Synthesis of Benzothiazoles from Arylmethylamines

The benzofused N,S‐containing benzothiazole heterocycles and their scaffolds have remarkable biological and pharmaceutical applications. Attentively, the development towards structurally diverse benzothiazoles via C(sp3)‐H functionalization of arylmethylamines has been the main attraction for synthetic organic chemists. In this review, the various synthetic approaches from C‐H/C‐N bond functionalization of arylmethylamines/amines as a new emerging substrate are described in detail towards the synthesis of substituted benzothiazoles. Furthermore, it gives insights into substrate scope and the reaction mechanistic pathway for the formation of final targeted benzothiazole products.

Exploring Cheura [Diploknema Butyracea (Roxb.) H. J. Lam]: Unveiling its Ethnomedicinal Heritage, Phytochemical Composition, Pharmacological Properties, and Innovative Applications.

Diploknema butyracea (Roxb) H.J Lam, also referred as "Kalpavriksha", is commonly known as Gophal, Cheura, or Indian butter tree. It is a deciduous tree with straight trunks of 15-20 m in height and white-yellow-coloured fragile flowers with fragrance, found at altitudes of 300-1500 m in the sub-Himalayan region of India, China, Nepal, and Bhutan. Diploknema have 11 taxa and 8 species, out of which 3 species are found in Uttarakhand hills, Sikkim, Darjeeling, Arunachal Pradesh, and Assam. The tree holds significant economic importance, serving various purposes within ethnic communities. Its high lipid content makes it valuable for food, medicine, construction, and the production of various value-added products. The ethno-pharmacological applications encompass treating rheumatism, burns, asthma, and various skin conditions. The plant's different components-bark, leaves, flowers, seeds, and fruits-contain a diverse array of phytoconstituents, including alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, and palmitic acid, along with essential nutrients like sodium, calcium, potassium, iron, magnesium, zinc, and various sugars which shows diverse pharmacological and therapeutic activities. Beyond traditional uses, Diploknema is important for diverse industrial application in pharmaceuticals, confectionery, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics. Present paper is an attempt to understand comprehensive details on different aspects of this plant to explore new avenues for various value-added products.

A platform chemical from soybean hulls: Unveiling the bioactive effects of levoglucosenone derivatives

Soybean is one of the most extensively cultivated crops globally, and the soybean oil industry produces a significant amount of hulls annually. Utilizing this by-product to generate levoglucosenone through acid-catalyzed pyrolysis represents an environmentally friendly strategy to maximize the use of this crop and increase the value of the residue.This study explored the pyrolysis of soybean hulls to obtain the target enone and its application in the generation of new antifungal compounds. Halogenated derivatives were synthesized in a simple and straightforward manner and evaluated for antifungal activity against several Candida and Cryptococcus strains. Mechanistic studies investigated their interactions with ergosterol, impact on fungal cell wall synthesis, and inhibition of virulence factors. Biofilm formation assays were also conducted. Our results showed that the chloro derivative demonstrated the highest antifungal activity, exhibiting a remarkable minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and efficacy against both susceptible and resistant strains. It was also showed that the mode of action does not involve ergosterol bonding nor inhibition of cell wall synthesis. This study provides valuable insights into utilizing agricultural waste for developing bioactive compounds with pharmaceutical applications, contributing to the sustainable utilization of biomass resources in pharmaceutical research and development.

Preparation of high-purity manganese sulfate and removal of unwanted metal ions using resin-based purification

ABSTRACT High purity manganese sulfate(MnSO4) is of great importance due to its applications in lithium-ion batteries, pharmaceutical applications, and within feed additives. As manganese always occurs in combination with iron, laterite and other minerals, co-leaching of Mn and Fe complicates the purification procedure of MnSO4. Obtaining high purity MnSO4 without contamination of calcium and magnesium is difficult, because of their similar chemical properties. Current research involved preparation of highly pure MnSO4 from low purity MnO2. A simple and efficient procedure has been developed for purification of MnSO4 by using a carbon adsorbent followed by treatment with iminodiacetate functionalised resin polymer. The two-step procedure enabled an extremely pure MnSO4 generally exceeding 99.9%. Iron has been efficiently removed to below 5 ppm (>99% reduction from ∼1000 ppm), calcium was reduced to ∼100 ppm (>90% reduction from ~1600 ppm) and magnesium was reduced to below 10 ppm (>99% reduction from ~1400 ppm). Adiitionally, simple carbon adsorption effectively reduced lead and zinc to below their detection levels (< 0.050 and 5.00 ppm, respectively) and arsenic was reduced to below its level of quantification (< 0.375 ppm). Careful adaptation of the procedure allows for producing high purity manganese salts at a larger scale.

Nickel‐Catalyzed [2+2+2] Cyclotrimerization of Alkynes and Other Unsaturated Systems: A Literature Overview

AbstractTransition metal‐catalyzed [2+2+2] cyclotrimerization provides easy access to carbocycles and heterocycles in a single operation with complete atom economy. In recent years, nickel catalysis has emerged as a powerful tool for constructing fused arenes and heteroarenes with high regio‐/chemoselectivity and functional group tolerance. This review highlights the historical perspective and advances made in recent years in nickel‐catalyzed [2+2+2] cycloadditions of alkynes, diynes, and various unsaturated systems. The catalytic activity of the nickel complexes, such as Ni‐phosphine, Ni‐NHC, Ni‐pincer, Ni‐diimine, etc, and their mechanistic insights have been thoroughly examined. Highly substituted arenes have broad applications in pharmaceuticals and soft materials. The applications of cyclotrimerization in these areas have been illustrated.

Exploring cutting-edge approaches in diabetes care: from nanotechnology to personalized therapeutics.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a persistent condition characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood due to irregularities in the secretion of insulin, its action, or both. The disease was believed to be incurable until insulin was extracted, refined, and produced for sale. In DM, insulin delivery devices and insulin analogs have improved glycemic management even further. Sulfonylureas, biguanides, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, and thiazolidinediones are examples of newer-generation medications having high efficacy in decreasing hyperglycemia as a result of scientific and technological advancements. Incretin mimetics, dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, GLP-1 agonists, PPARs, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, anti-CD3 mAbs, glucokinase activators, and glimins as targets have all performed well in recent clinical studies. Considerable focus was placed on free FA receptor 1 agonist, protein tyrosine phosphatase-1B inhibitors, and Sparc-related modular calcium-binding protein 1 which are still being studied. Theranostics, stem cell therapy, gene therapy, siRNA, and nanotechnology are some of the new therapeutic techniques. Traditional Chinese medicinal plants will also be discussed. This study seeks to present a comprehensive analysis of the latest research advancements, the emerging trends in medication therapy, and the utilization of delivery systems in treating DM. The objective is to provide valuable insights into the application of different pharmaceuticals in the field of diabetes mellitus treatment. Also, the therapeutic approach for diabetic patients infected with COVID-19 will be highlighted. Recent clinical and experimental studies evidence the Egyptian experience. Finally, as per the knowledge of the state of the art, our conclusion and future perspective will be declared.

Palladium-Catalyzed Acetoxylation of γ-Dehydro-aryl-himachalene: The Synthesis of a Novel Allylic Acetoxylated Sesquiterpene and a π-Allyl Palladium(II) Complex.

Allylic oxygenated derivatives of himachalenes are highly valued molecules due to their potential applications in perfumery, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Previous attempts at catalyzed allylic oxidation of himachalenes led to the formation of a very stable η3-allyl palladium complex, preventing any further reaction development. Herein, we present the first successful palladium-catalyzed synthesis of a novel allylic acetoxylated derivative of himachalenes. This reaction was achieved by incorporating an aromatic ring into the substrate structure. The resulting intermediate complex was isolated and characterized using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed to compare the reactivity of the newly synthesized complex with previously reported ones. The theoretical results confirm that the introduction of an aromatic ring enhances the reactivity of the η³-allyl palladium complex, thereby facilitating the desired transformation.

Structural Characterization and Antioxidant Activity of Exopolysaccharide Produced from Beet Waste Residue by Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides.

Lactic acid bacteria exopolysaccharide (EPS) is a large molecular polymer produced during the growth and metabolism of lactic acid bacteria. EPS has multiple biological functions and is widely used in fields such as food and medicine. However, the low yield and high production cost of EPS derived from lactic acid bacteria limit its widespread application. In this study, we used beet waste residue as a substrate to produce EPS by fermentation with Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides to improve the utilization rate of agricultural waste and reduce the production cost of lactic acid bacterial EPS. After purification, the molecular weight (Mw) of EPS was determined to be 417 kDa using high-performance size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC). High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy revealed that the EPS was composed of glucose subunits with α-1,6 glycosidic linkages. The thermal analysis and heavy metal adsorption capacity revealed a relatively high degradation temperature of 315.54 °C and that the material could effectively adsorb Cu2+. Additionally, the findings indicated that the EPS exhibited a significant ability to neutralize free radicals, a property that was found to be concentration dependent. Furthermore, the results of the intracellular study showed the protective effect of freshly isolated EPS on tBHP-induced cellular oxidative stress at a concentration of 50 µg/mL. These results suggest that the EPS from L. pseudomesenteroides may be developed as antioxidant agents for functional food products and pharmaceutical applications due to its capacity to scavenge free radicals.

Unraveling the web of defense: the crucial role of polysaccharides in immunity.

The great potential of polysaccharides in immunological regulation has recently been highlighted in pharmacological and clinical studies. Polysaccharides can trigger immunostimulatory responses through molecular identification, intra- and intercellular communication via direct or indirect interactions with the immune system. Various immunostimulatory polysaccharides or their derivative compounds interacts at cellular level to boost the immune system, including arabinogalactans, fucoidans, mannans, xylans, galactans, hyaluronans, fructans, pectin and arabinogalactans, etc. These natural polysaccharides are derived from various plants, animals and microbes. A unique structural diversity has been identified in polysaccharides, while monosaccharides and glucosidic bonds mainly confer diverse biological activities. These natural polysaccharides improve antioxidant capacity, reduce the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, strengthen the intestinal barrier, influence the composition of intestinal microbial populations and promote the synthesis of short-chain fatty acids. These natural polysaccharides are also known to reduce excessive inflammatory responses. It is crucial to develop polysaccharide-based immunomodulators that could be used to prevent or treat certain diseases. This review highlights the structural features, immunomodulatory properties, underlying immunomodulatory mechanisms of naturally occurring polysaccharides, and activities related to immune effects by elucidating a complex relationship between polysaccharides and immunity. In addition, the future of these molecules as potential immunomodulatory components that could transform pharmaceutical applications at clinical level will also be highlighted.

Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids investigating their role in medicinal applications and genomic protection.

Ganoderma lucidum (GL) is a white rot fungus widely used for its pharmacological properties and health benefits. GL consists of several biological components, including polysaccharides, sterols, and triterpenoids. Triterpenoids are often found in GL in the form of lanostane-type triterpenoids with quadrilateral carbon structures. The study revealed that triterpenoids have diverse biological properties and can be categorized based on their functional groups. Triterpenoids derived from GL have shown potential medicinal applications. They can disrupt the cell cycle by inhibiting β-catenin or protein kinase C activity, leading to anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic effects. They can also reduce the production of inflammatory cytokines, thus mitigating inflammation. Additionally, triterpenoids have been found to enhance the immune system's defenses against various health conditions. They possess antioxidant, antiparasitic, anti-hyperlipidemic, and antimicrobial activities, making them suitable for pharmaceutical applications. Furthermore, triterpenoids are believed to afford radioprotection to DNA, protecting it from radiation damage. This review focuses on the types of triterpenoids isolated from GL, their synthesis pathways, and their chemical structures. Additionally, it highlights the pharmacological characteristics of triterpenoids derived from GL, emphasizing their significant role in various therapeutic applications and health benefits for both humans and animals.