Application Of Geospatial Technologies Research Articles

Technologies in Urban Planning: Systematic Review on Unauthorized Building Modifications Monitoring

This systematic literature review (SLR) explores the application of geospatial technologies, particularly Geographic Information Systems (GIS), in unauthorized building modifications in urban areas. Unauthorized building modifications pose significant challenges to urban planning, including unregulated growth, safety hazards, and non-compliance with zoning laws. This review aims to synthesize current research, identify effective GIS strategies, and highlight challenges and opportunities in integrating geospatial technologies for regulatory compliance and urban management. Findings suggest that while GIS offers advanced tools for precise monitoring and data analysis, there are notable hurdles concerning technological readiness, organizational adoption, and legislative frameworks

UTILIZING GOOGLE EARTH FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING: EXTRACTION OF POINT SOURCE LOCATIONS AT THE UPSTREAM OF SUNGAI SKUDAI CATCHMENT, JOHOR MALAYSIA

This study explores the application of geospatial technologies, specifically focusing on Google Earth (GE), to extract and mapping point source pollution in the upstream of Sungai Skudai Catchment (SRC). A thorough analysis of the locations of restaurants, launderettes, car washes, and workshops was made practical by the combination of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tools with satellite images, which offers important data for environmental planning and water quality management. The research area, located in Johor, Malaysia, offers an example of the difficulties driven by rapid urban growth. This study provides comprehensive directions for extracting point sources, with a focus on verifying data via field surveys and Google searches. The upstream region was found to have 373 restaurants, 62 launderettes, 73 car washes, and 80 workshops. The dataset was further improved by the validation process, which determined any inconsistencies and added additional data. This study highlights the importance of field verification for improving point source pollution data accuracy. It also provides a base for comprehensive strategies for pollution management, land-use planning, and preservation efforts in rapidly changing environments, such as the Sungai Skudai Catchment.

Persepsi Peserta Didik Terhadap Aplikasi Teknologi Geospasial Pada Pembelajaran Geografi Kelas X SMAN 1 Sungai Tarab

The purpose of this study was to determine the perception of class X students at SMAN 1 Sungai Tarab towards Geospatial Technology Applications. Geospatial technology is a technology that measures, analyzes, and visualizes objects or events on earth. This research uses a qualitative descriptive approach. The selection of subjects in this study used a total random sampling method consisting of 255 class X students. The research data were collected using a semi-open questionnaire method with a google form consisting of 25 questions given the answer options yes, no, and others. The results showed that there were 68.41% of students answered yes with the Good category, on the indicator of using geospatial technology applications as learning media. There were 64.61% of students answered yes with the Good category, on the indicator of the use of geospatial technology as learning material. And there are 70.44% of students answered yes with the Good category, on the indicator of the use of geospatial applications in everyday life. From the perception of students, there are still many students who do not know and use geospatial technology applications. Based on observations made at SMAN 1 Sungai Tarab, it appears that geography teachers have not utilized this geospatial technology application-based learning media.

Application of geospatial technology on land suitability analysis for wheat and maize farming: In a case of Guder sub-watershed North West Oromia, Ethiopia

Cereal crops like wheat and maize are crucial to providing food security in rural areas of Ethiopia. However, due to population growth, agricultural practices for these cereal crops have been expanded to vulnerable areas, and increasing land degradation. Geospatial technologies are essential for decision-making to reduce land degradation and ensure sustainable agriculture activities. In the Guder sub-watershed, Oromia regional state of Ethiopia, where land degradation has been a persistent issue, agricultural suitability study is crucial. This study is focused on the Guder sub-watershed, which aimed to analyze the land suitability based on ten controlling parameters, including elevation, slope, soil texture, soil depth, soil PH, soil drainage, proximity to the road, temperature, rainfall and land use/land cover, for the two most significant cereal crops (wheat and maize). All of these factors were weighted in accordance with the relative importance of each component for the appropriateness of wheat and maize land suitability using MCDA and AHP method, based on the recommendations of numerous writers and expert opinions. The findings of the study showed that 6 %, 50.58 %, 23.26 %, and 20.26 % of the total study area were highly, moderately, marginally and not suitable for wheat cultivation, respectively, whereas 5.1 %, 57.3 %, 17.3 %, and 20.3 % of the study area were highly, moderately, marginally and not suitable for cultivating maize crop respectively. This result support decision makers to develop land use planning thereby improve productivity and minimize land degradation.

Evaluasi Efektivitas Pemanfaatan Aplikasi E-Musrenbang Berbasis Geospasial dalam Pembangunan di Kota Bontang

The aim of this research is to evaluate how well the e-Musrenbang application performs in the North Bontang Regency area in terms of development planning. The importance of implementing e-Government and Electronic-Based Government Systems in development planning is the driving force for this research. e-Musrenbang, an application with a geographical focus, is a method used to help communities get involved in development. With a research focus on North and South Bontang Regencies, this research uses qualitative methodology. The research objects are represented by Guntung Village and Tanjung Laut Indah Village. Using Budiani's theory, this research focuses on the characteristics of goal setting, socialization, target accuracy, and monitoring. Utilizing secondary data, interviewing relevant informants, and observation are the methods used for data collection. The research findings show how well the e-Musrenbang application is able to increase community involvement in planning and development in North Bontang District and South Bontang District. In this case, the public can convey their ambitions more easily online thanks to this program, which also helps the government in regulating and monitoring these aspirations. In addition, the application of geospatial technology makes development planning easier and more precise and focused. However, there are several shortcomings in this research, such as research topics that are limited to two different sub-districts and data collection techniques that only use qualitative techniques. Therefore, to have a more thorough understanding of the usability of this application, it is recommended that future research integrate qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

Accuracy Assessment of UAV LiDAR Compared to Traditional Total Station for Geospatial Data Collection in Land Surveying Contexts

Abstract. Accurate surveying of vegetated areas presents significant challenges due to obstructions that obscure visibility and compromise the precision of measurements. This paper introduces a methodology employing the DJI Zenmuse L2 Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) sensor, which is mounted on a Matrice 350 RTK drone. The DJI Zenmuse L2 sensor excels at capturing detailed terrain data under heavy foliage, capable of collecting 1.2 million points per second and offering five returns, thus enhancing the sensor's ability to detect multiple surface responses from a single laser pulse. In a case study conducted near a creek heavily obscured by tree coverage, traditional aerial imaging techniques are found insufficient for capturing critical topographic features, such as the creek banks. Employing LiDAR, the study aims to map these obscured features effectively. The collected data is processed using DJI Terra software, which supports the accurate projection and analysis of the LiDAR data. To validate the accuracy of the data collected from the LiDAR sensor, traditional survey methods are deployed to ground truth the data and provide an accuracy assessment. Ground control points (GCPs) are established using a GNSS receiver to provide geodetic coordinates, which then assist in setting up a total station. This total station measures vertical and horizontal angles, as well as the slope distance from the instrument to positions underneath the tree coverage on the ground. These measurements serve as checkpoints to validate the accuracy of the LiDAR data, thus ensuring the reliability of the survey. This paper discusses the potential of integrating LiDAR data with traditional surveying data, which is expected to enhance the ability of surveyors to map environmental features efficiently and accurately in complex and vegetated terrains. Through detailed procedural descriptions and expected outcomes, the study aims to provide valuable insights into the strategic application of geospatial technologies to overcome common surveying challenges.

Geopatial Technologies in Civil Engineering : A Critical Literature

This study investigates the role of geospatial technologies in enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of civil engineering projects. Geospatial technologies, including Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and spatial analysis, have revolutionized the field of civil engineering by providing critical tools for planning, design, construction, and management of infrastructure projects. The integration of these technologies enables accurate terrain mapping, real-time monitoring, and data-driven decision-making, which are crucial for ensuring the safety, sustainability, and resilience of modern infrastructure. This research aims to explore the applications of geospatial technologies in various civil engineering projects, including highway planning, urban development, and environmental monitoring. The study also examines the potential benefits and limitations of these technologies and provides recommendations for their effective integration into civil engineering practices. By understanding the impact of geospatial technologies on civil engineering projects, this research aims to contribute to the development of more efficient, sustainable, and resilient infrastructure that supports the needs of modern society.

Geospatial Technology Intervention Module in Learning and Facilitation (L&F) Amongst Form Two Geography Students

Technological evolution in the 21st Century Learning and Facilitation (L&F) have been significantly affirmed by the Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE). Nonetheless, the present scenario still indicates the snag of technological development in the education system such as the application of geospatial technology in the subject of Geography in Malaysia which is not significant. Generally, Learning and Facilitation (L&F) of Geography subjects concern conventional activities that do not help much in improving the Spatial Thinking Skills (STS) and student interest. Ergo, Geospatial technology has been observed to have the potential to increase STS and student interest in Geography subjects. This study aims to develop a Geospatial technology intervention module based on the theory of Cognitive Learning, Theory of Constructivism and Bloom’s Taxonomy Theory. The formation of this module adopts Sidek Module Construction Model (MPMS) as the main motivation to complete this module. The contents of the module are also identified through a more comprehensive and analytical and extensive review of past studies done. This study creates draft modules that have four submodules namely Geography Skill, Physical Geography, Human Geography and Area Geography. The module is anticipated to be implemented as an effective L&F material especially in enhancing STS and attracting students to Geography subjects.

Mapping of Groundwater Potential Zones in the Kuzhithuraiyar Sub Basin of Kodayar River, Kanniyakumari District, Tamilnadu: Using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and GIS


 
 
 Groundwater plays a very important role for all living beings. It is decisive to have a scientific understanding of groundwater management since, with careful use and replenishment, groundwater may help solve issues. The distribution of groundwater tables, slope, land-form, drainage pattern, lithology, topography, geological structure, fracturing density, opening and connectivity of fractures, secondary porosity, and landuse landcover all affect the occurrence and efficiency of groundwater in an aquifer system. An essential tool for assessing, tracking and protecting groundwater resources is the integration of geospatial techniques such as Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System for the identification of groundwater potential zones. This study aims to find the groundwater potential zones using Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and managing the resources by creating different thematic layers such as rainfall, geology, geomorphology, drainage density, soil, slope, lineament and landuse landcover (LULC) of the Kuzhithuraiyar sub basin of the Kodayar river in Tamilnadu using the application of geospatial technologies. The thematic maps for all the thematic layers have been prepared using tools such as Interpolation, contour lines, Classification in ArcGIS 10.8. Theme weight and class rank were assigned to different thematic layers in weighed overlay analysis. The results were validated through field work and groundwater potential map was created. The groundwater potential zonation mapping was done by the overlay analysis in ArcGIS 10.8 software. The obtained map was classified into four categories namely very high groundwater potential zone, high groundwater potential zone, medium groundwater potential zone and low groundwater potential zone. The North Eastern part of the basin is considered as low groundwater potential zone while the Southern portion has high groundwater potentiality. The low groundwater potential zone covers an area of 10.58 sq.km and high groundwater potential zone covers an area of about 388.37sq.km.This study will be helpful for useful groundwater management for different tenacities.
 
 

Application of geospatial technologies towards pest management in agriculture

Application of geospatial technologies towards pest management in agriculture

Application of Geospatial Technology to Assess Pressures and Threats to Nature Related to Human Activities in Wilpattu National Park

Expanding agricultural land is one of the humanities largest and most considerable environmental impacts. It has transformed habitats and is one of the greatest pressures and threats to biodiversity. By 2020, with an estimated population of 22 million, the per capita arable land is about 0.158 hectares. This indicates heavy pressure on agricultural land use. This agricultural land use causes deforestation. Illegal deforestation results in the destruction of habitat and the restriction of wildlife movements. Apart from the direct destruction of habitats of flora and fauna that provide humans with valuable resources, removing forest cover puts many essential natural functions out of order, which may lead to a range of severe consequences. There have been many attempts at human encroachment at Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka, and its Forest Reserves; however, it has never been done at this scale with the awareness of the Government Authorities, who failed to act. The Easter end of the Wilpattu National Park lies between the divisional secretariat of Mahaviachchi, Karuwalagasweva, Nochchiyagama, and Rajanganaya. The buffer zone of 1.6km has been marked from the Wilpattu reserve boundary. This study uses the integrated land use assessment by applying a land use evaluation model that evaluates biophysical and human-related data in eight GN Divisions (Hunuvilagama, Kuda Vilachchiya, Track 13, Matha Kiramam, Palaikuli, Pahalapuliyankulam, Parana Eluwankulam, and Andiyapuliyankulam) in buffer zone in Wilpattu National Park. Environmental impact has been assessed based on image classification and area calculations. According to the analysis done in the human settlement, it indicates encroachment of the restricted zone for human settlement. The area of this buffer zone is approximately 33,147 ha. About 9,190 ha of this buffer zone area has been utilized by humans in various ways. Spatial- temporal data in 2003-2019 satellite image classification identified permanent building/housing units within the 1.6 km restricted zone, which has been increased in marginal villages. Mullikulam and Eluwankulam GN Divisions are the most critical and rapidly encroached areas in the forest village in the Wilpattu National Park. According to the GIS-based maps, cultivation, road construction, and residence are significant factors influencing the major ecosystems in the eastern part of the Wilpattu Park Boundary. Mahavilachchi and Nochchiyagama can be identified as the villages where elephants roam more and the areas where elephant-human conflict occurs regularly. Paddy and hay farming are primarily practiced in the areas close to the Wilpattu reserve zone. Additionally, coconut, banana, mango, and cashew crops are cultivated.
 
 Keywords: Wilpattu, Agriculture, Deforestation, Buffer zone, Human

ГЕОАҚПАРАТТЫҚ ТЕХНОЛОГИЯЛАР ГЕОКЕҢІСТІКТІК ОЙЛАУ ДАҒДЫЛАРЫН ДАМЫТУ ҚҰРАЛЫ РЕТІНДЕ

The use of geospatial technologies is becoming increasingly important in geography education, enabling activities such as spatial data retrieval, sampling, organised storage and transfer of necessary information. However, this process is very slow due to many obstacles that hinder the implementation of geospatial technologies in secondary education. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyse the current status of geospatial technologies in teaching geography in schools in Kazakhstan and to as-sess the potential of these technologies to develop students’ geospatial skills. The state of application of geospatial technologies in secondary education in Kazakhstan was determined by a survey. The survey involved 208 geography teachers from 17 regions and 3 large cities of Kazakhstan. The survey results showed that 96.2% of respondents use geospatial technologies (geographic information systems – GIS, software, mapping services, geoportals, mobile GIS applications). The most common are mobile GIS applications (69.5%) and mapping services (21.4%). It was also found that 24.1% of respondents use ArcGis and 20.7% use QGIS for GIS-based data design. Although the content of typical secondary school programmes and textbooks reflects the problem of practical application of GIS technologies, it was found that teachers face a number of obstacles in using them. Therefore, teachers would benefit from using not only GIS but also geospatial technologies in general when teaching school geography. In the future, geospatial technologies will help students to develop geospatial thinking skills due to their multifunctional capabilities.

Multi-hazard risk assessment of rail infrastructure in India under local vulnerabilities towards adaptive pathways for disaster resilient infrastructure planning

“Lifeline of the nation” is the motto of Indian Railways as it connects through a common thread, billion plus population in one way or the other. The National Rail Plan for India – 2030 focuses on creating a ‘future ready’ Railway system by 2030 by suitably integrating new railway systems like high-speed rails. However, rail infrastructure is exposed to multi-hazards and disasters sometimes disrupt safe rail operations. This study explores rail infrastructure risk assessment at a national scale utilizing the UNDRR framework and synthesized application of geospatial technologies with a focus on disentanglement of local vulnerabilities of the rail infrastructure assets utilizing factors of health of bridges, visibility obstruction to level crossings, labour wages & their regions and GSDP under multi-hazard scenarios. The results revealed that the NR and NFR were identified as high-risk routes under the risk analysis of physical and social vulnerability scenarios, followed by CR Railways. The average annual frequencies of emergency cases in each zone show a correlation r (17) = 0.4758 with the combined mean risk ranks for each zone. In comparison to socioeconomic factors, which contribute to indirect losses, physical factors directly affect safety and contribute to direct losses. Further, outcomes depict more accidents on Indian Railways during the monsoon (nearly 50%) and cold weather (29%) seasons. The study suggests that with the participation of key stakeholders, including urban and transport planners, an integrated approach is helpful in identifying critical rail routes towards risk-informed adaptive disaster-resilient infrastructure planning for providing safety, continuity and reliability of essential rail services.

Application of geospatial technology for potential ecotourism site selection in Masha district, Southwest Ethiopia

Application of geospatial technology for potential ecotourism site selection in Masha district, Southwest Ethiopia

Multi-hazard susceptibility model based on high spatial resolution data-a case study of Sali settlement (Dugi otok, Croatia).

The world has been facing an increase in various natural hazards. The coastal regions are recognized as one of the most vulnerable due to high population pressure and climate change intensity. Mediterranean countries have one of the most burnable ecosystems in the world, one of the most exposed to pluvial floods, and have the highest erosion rates within the EU. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop the first multihazard susceptibility model in Croatia for the Sali settlement (island of Dugi otok). The creation of a multi-hazard susceptibility model (MHSM) combined the application of geospatial technology (GST) with a local perception survey. The methodology consisted of two main steps: (1) creating individual hazard susceptibility models (soil erosion, wildfires, pluvial floods), and (2) overall hazard susceptibility modeling. Multicriterial GIS analyses and the Analytical Hierarchy Process were used to create individual hazard models. Criteria used (32) to create models are derived from very-high-resolution (VHR) models. Two versions of MHSM are created: 1) all criteria with equal weighting coefficients and 2) weight coefficients determined based on public perception. According to MHSM 1, most of the research (58%) area is moderately susceptible to multiple hazards. Highly and very highly susceptible areas are 27% of the drainage basin and are mostly located near roads and houses. MHSM 2 reveals similar results to MHSM 1. The public perceives that the research area is the most susceptible to wildfires. The wildfire ignition risk is ranked as moderate (3.00) with a standard deviation of 1.16. Pluvial flood risk is ranked low (2.78), with a standard deviation of 1.15. The risk of soil is most inferior (2.24) with a standard deviation of 0.91. The the most significant difference between public perception and the GIS-MCDA model of hazard susceptibility is related to soil erosion. However, the accuracy of the soil erosion model was confirmed by ROC curves based on recent traces of soil erosion in the research area. The proposed methodological framework of multi-hazard susceptibility modeling can be applied, with minor modifications, to other Mediterranean countries.

Advancement in the Application of Geospatial Technology in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage in South Africa: A Scientometric Review

Geospatial technologies have become an essential component of archaeological research, aiding in the identification, mapping, and analysis of archaeological sites. Several journals have published existing narratives on the development and impact of geospatial technologies in the study of archaeology and cultural heritage. However, this has not been supported by a systematic review of articles and papers, where meticulously collected evidence is methodically analysed. This article systematically reviews the trends in the use of geospatial technologies in archaeology and cultural heritage through the search for keywords or terms associated with geospatial technologies used in the two fields on the Scopus database from 1990 to 2022. Bibliometric analysis using the Scopus Analyze tool and analysis of bibliometric networks using VOSviewer visualisations reveals how modern archaeological studies are now a significant discipline of spatial sciences and how the discipline enjoys the tools of geomatic engineering for establishing temporal and spatial controls on the material being studied and observing patterns in the archaeological records. The key concepts or themes or distinct knowledge domains that shape research in the use of geospatial technologies in archaeology and cultural heritage, according to the Scopus database (1990–2022), are cultural heritage, archaeology, geographic information systems, remote sensing, virtual reality, and spatial analysis. Augmented reality, 3D scanning, 3D modelling, 3D reconstruction, lidar, digital elevation modelling, artificial intelligence, spatiotemporal analysis, ground penetrating radar, optical radar, aerial photography, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are some of the geospatial technology tools and research themes that are less explored or less interconnected concepts that have potential gaps in research or underexplored topics that might be worth investigating in archaeology and cultural heritage.

Morphotectonic assessment of the Gaula river basin, Kumaun lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand

Morphotectonics is a discipline of geomorphology that explores how landforms are formed or modified by tectonic action. In the present study we uthe sed application of geospatial technology to evaluate the active deformation owing to Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Ramgarh Thrust (RT) in Outer part of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya. Active deformation inside river valleys is ascribed downcuttinging and incision of bedrock, offset of river channel, lateral migration of the river, and development of Knickpoints. Therefore, we used quantitative geo-mathematical analysis of The Gaula river basin using ASTER DEM along with survey of India Toposheet (1:50,000) supplemented by field observations. Four morphotectonic metrics, including the basin elongation ratio, the asymmetry factor, the channel sinuosity, and the hypsometric integral, were derived to examine the relative index of active tectonics (RIAT). We applied Stream Power Incision Model (SPIM) by analysing the steepness index (Ksn) using the stream power law. Additionally, a comprehensive evaluation of tributary streams of the Gaula watershed has been carried out to understand relative tectonic activity. Further we used Chi integral (χ) to measure transience dynamics and geometric disequilibrium of Gaula basin. We conclude that most sub-basins are tectonically enhanced, structurally organized and elongated in nature. The landform in the study area is largely controlled by presence of MBT, RT and subsidiary thrusts spread over in the vicinity. Based on our activity classes we concluded that approximately 31% of the area in Gaula river basin falls in very active whereas ∼34% is potentially active. Furthermore, we suggest that the results will be very useful for estimation of hazard potential zones in sub-Himalayan region of foothill zone of Kumaun Himalaya.

Application of geospatial technology for the land use/land cover change assessment and future change predictions using CA Markov chain model

Application of geospatial technology for the land use/land cover change assessment and future change predictions using CA Markov chain model

The Application of Geospatial Technologies in the Study of Vegetation Cover, Assessment and Comparison of Plant Diversity in the Al-Jadriyah Complex “University of Baghdad and Al-Nahrain”

one of the most important distinguish evaluation of plant species features of environmentally sustainable universities that are concerned with improving the life quality. The study was aimed to apply geospatial techniques in the evaluation of plant diversity at the level of species, genus and plant families in Baghdad and Al-Nahrain Universities. And the application of remote sensing technolog and geographic information systems ArcGIS v 10.3 tudy area capturedRepresented by the satellite image of the s on 28/1/2020 by the Sentinel-2B which is based on multi-spectral Image (MSI) with a spatial resolution of 10x10m2. It contains 13 spectral bands with the TIFF extension. From the results of the field survey of Al-Nahrain University, it was found that the total number of plants reached 577 plants, which included 25 plant species, 22 plant genus, and 19 plant families, compared to the total number of plants in the University of Baghdad, which was 3717 plants that belong to 70 plant species, 63 genus, and 35 plant families. The results of the vegetation cover index showed that the vegetation cover values ranged from -2 to 0.7, distributed between high density vegetation cover between 0.5 to 0.7, dense 0.3 to 0.5, low density 0 to 0.3, and poor vegetation cover 0.1. to zero. As for the water channel around the academic domain, buildings and roads, their values ranged from zero to -2, respectively. The results of the Normalized Difference Built-up Index ranged between 0 and -0.6, noting that the standard range of the index includes values below zero. Whenever the values go from -1 or less, they refer to building covers, roads, bridges, sidewalks, walkways, parking lots and other urban facilities and concrete blocks..

A Comprehensive Review of Geospatial Technology Applications in Earthquake Preparedness, Emergency Management, and Damage Assessment

The level of destruction caused by an earthquake depends on a variety of factors, such as magnitude, duration, intensity, time of occurrence, and underlying geological features, which may be mitigated and reduced by the level of preparedness of risk management measures. Geospatial technologies offer a means by which earthquake occurrence can be predicted or foreshadowed; managed in terms of levels of preparation related to land use planning; availability of emergency shelters, medical resources, and food supplies; and assessment of damage and remedial priorities. This literature review paper surveys the geospatial technologies employed in earthquake research and disaster management. The objectives of this review paper are to assess: (1) the role of the range of geospatial data types; (2) the application of geospatial technologies to the stages of an earthquake; (3) the geospatial techniques used in earthquake hazard, vulnerability, and risk analysis; and (4) to discuss the role of geospatial techniques in earthquakes and related disasters. The review covers past, current, and potential earthquake-related applications of geospatial technology, together with the challenges that limit the extent of usefulness and effectiveness. While the focus is mainly on geospatial technology applied to earthquake research and management in practice, it also has validity as a framework for natural disaster risk assessments, emergency management, mitigation, and remediation, in general.