Electrochemical Biosensor Applications Research Articles

Poly-adenine-mediated tetrahedral DNA nanostructure with multiple target-recognition sites for ultrasensitive and rapid electrochemical detection of Aflatoxin B1

Tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDNs) are widely used in the development of electrochemical biosensors due to their structural stability, programmability, and strong interfacial orderliness. However, the complex modifications on the electrode and the single vertex target recognition of the TDNs limit their applications in electrochemical biosensing. Herein, we developed a universal detection system based on a novel polyadenine-based tetrahedral DNA nanostructure (ATDN) using Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) as the model target for analysis. In the absence of target AFB1, the signal probes (SP) modified with ferrocene would be anchored by five aptamers on ATDN. The target capture by aptamers led to a release of SP from the electrode surface, resulting in a significant reduction of the electrochemical signal. This new nanostructure was not only dispensed with multi-step electrode modifications and strong mechanical rigidity but also had five modification sites which enhanced the detection sensitivity for the target. As a result, this biosensor shows good analytical performance in the linear range of 1 fg mL−1 to 1 ng mL−1, exhibiting a low detection limit of 0.33 fg mL−1. Satisfactory accuracy has also been demonstrated through good recoveries (95.2%–98.9%). The proposed new tetrahedral DNA nanostructure can provide a more rapid and sensitive alternative to previous electrochemical sensors based on the conventional TDN. Since DNA sequences can be designed flexibly, the sensing platform in this strategy can be extended to detect various targets in different fields.

Application and progress of electrochemical biosensors for the detection of pathogenic viruses

Viruses, with high fatality rates, have posed significant threat to global public health recent decades, necessitating rapid and accurate diagnostic methods to cut off their transmission effectively. To meet with this ongoing demand, electrochemical biosensors have emerged as powerful tools for virus detection due to their high sensitivity, good selectivity, cost-effectiveness, and rapid response. In this review, the fundamental components in the design of electrochemical biosensors, including biological recognition elements, nanomaterials, and signal outputs are introduced and their respective advantages and limitations are discussed. Furthermore, the employment of emerging innovative techniques, such as electrochemical collision technique and artificial intelligence technology and their combination with electrochemical biosensors for virus detection are discussed, which will provide valuable insights into the future prospects of electrochemical biosensors in virus detection.

A review on polymeric nanocomposites for the electrochemical sensing of breast cancer biomarkers

Breast cancer is a rapidly spreading disease and early detection of associated biomarkers in body fluids, particularly blood, is crucial. Electrochemical biosensors, known for their high sensitivity, selectivity, cost-effectiveness, and miniaturization potential, have emerged as a promising tool for breast cancer screening. This review article focuses on the integration of polymers and nanosized objects to enhance the performance of electrochemical biosensors in analyzing breast cancer biomarkers in serum samples, breast cancer cell lysates, and tumor tissues. Recent developments in this field have demonstrated the significant benefits of these sensors, including improved sensitivity and selectivity. By incorporating nanocomposites into the electrochemical sensing interface, signal amplification is achieved, resulting in enhanced detection limits and accuracy. The use of different dimensionalities of nanomaterials (0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D nanostructured interfaces) in polymer-based nanocomposites has further contributed to the development of sensors with unique properties for sensitive and rapid detection. The potential of electrochemical biosensors based on polymer nanocomposites to revolutionize disease management lies in their ability to enable user-friendly breast cancer screening and facilitate early detection. However, there are still limitations that need to be addressed, and further research is required to optimize the performance of these sensors. The article also discusses the future perspectives and real-world applications of electrochemical biosensors based on polymer nanocomposites while considering the challenges that lie ahead.

Strategies and Applications of Graphene and Its Derivatives-Based Electrochemical Sensors in Cancer Diagnosis.

Graphene is an emerging nanomaterial increasingly being used in electrochemical biosensing applications owing to its high surface area, excellent conductivity, ease of functionalization, and superior electrocatalytic properties compared to other carbon-based electrodes and nanomaterials, enabling faster electron transfer kinetics and higher sensitivity. Graphene electrochemical biosensors may have the potential to enable the rapid, sensitive, and low-cost detection of cancer biomarkers. This paper reviews early-stage research and proof-of-concept studies on the development of graphene electrochemical biosensors for potential future cancer diagnostic applications. Various graphene synthesis methods are outlined along with common functionalization approaches using polymers, biomolecules, nanomaterials, and synthetic chemistry to facilitate the immobilization of recognition elements and improve performance. Major sensor configurations including graphene field-effect transistors, graphene modified electrodes and nanocomposites, and 3D graphene networks are highlighted along with their principles of operation, advantages, and biosensing capabilities. Strategies for the immobilization of biorecognition elements like antibodies, aptamers, peptides, and DNA/RNA probes onto graphene platforms to impart target specificity are summarized. The use of nanomaterial labels, hybrid nanocomposites with graphene, and chemical modification for signal enhancement are also discussed. Examples are provided to illustrate applications for the sensitive electrochemical detection of a broad range of cancer biomarkers including proteins, circulating tumor cells, DNA mutations, non-coding RNAs like miRNA, metabolites, and glycoproteins. Current challenges and future opportunities are elucidated to guide ongoing efforts towards transitioning graphene biosensors from promising research lab tools into mainstream clinical practice. Continued research addressing issues with reproducibility, stability, selectivity, integration, clinical validation, and regulatory approval could enable wider adoption. Overall, graphene electrochemical biosensors present powerful and versatile platforms for cancer diagnosis at the point of care.

Electrochemical Protein-based Bioanalytical Devices for Drug Analysis.

Proteins are vital components of living cells and the loss of their native functions has been associated with a wide variety of medical conditions. From this point of view, investigation of the protein microenvironment is crucial to support the development of therapeutic approaches capable of ensuring cellular functions. Therefore, analytical assays for the detection, quantification, and characterization of proteins, drugs, and protein-drug complexes play an essential role in fundamental research and clinical applications. Electrochemistry arises as an alternative methodology for fast assessment of proteins and drugs and is attractive due to the adaptability to miniaturization and scalability of electroanalytical devices, which then can be further employed as strategies towards personalized medical care. Thus, this review summarizes electrochemical investigations in the past 10 years on protein-based analytical devices and biosensors. A general overview of electrochemical assays that integrate proteins with nanostructured materials and conductive polymers is presented. Applications of electrochemical assays and biosensors were divided into four categories. First, those designed for drug screening strategies that focus on targeting specific intracellular, extracellular, or membrane protein subdomains to modulate their functions, aggregation/misfolding of proteins, and protein degradation pathways. Then, drug metabolism assays that involve mimicking natural metabolic pathways to identify potential safety and efficacy issues related to a drug or its metabolites. The third was dedicated to electrochemical drug delivery systems with anchored drugs in the form of bioconjugates, while the fourth was dedicated to electroanalytical methodologies for quantitative drug assays, where the electroactivity of the target species is often used to correlate the electrochemical signal to their concentration.

Recent advances in electrochemical sensors and biosensors for monitoring drugs and metabolites in pharmaceutical and biological samples.

Various applications of electrochemical sensors and biosensors have been reported in many fields. These include pharmaceuticals, drug detection, cancer detection, and analysis of toxic elements in tap water. Electrochemical sensors are characterised by their low cost, ease of manufacture, rapid analysis, small size and ability to detect multiple elements simultaneously. They also allow the reaction mechanisms of analytes, such as drugs, to be taken into account, giving a first indication of their fate in the body or their pharmaceutical preparation. Several materials are used in the construction of sensors, such as graphene, fullerene, carbon nanotubes, carbon graphite, glassy carbon, carbon clay, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and metals. This review covers the most recent progress in electrochemical sensors used to analyze drugs and metabolites in pharmaceutical and biological samples. We have highlighted carbon paste electrodes (CPE), glassy carbon electrodes (GCE), screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) and reduced graphene oxide electrodes (rGOE). The sensitivity and analysis speed of electrochemical sensors can be improved by modifying them with conductive materials. Different materials used for modification have been reported and demonstrated, such as molecularly imprinted polymers, multiwalled carbon nanotubes, fullerene (C60), iron(III) nanoparticles (Fe3O4NP), and CuO micro-fragments (CuO MF). Manufacturing strategies and the detection limit of each sensor have been reported.

Application of Electrochemical Biosensors for Determination of Food Spoilage

Food security is significantly affected by the mass production of agricultural produce and goods, the growing number of imported foods, and new eating and consumption habits. These changed circumstances bring food safety issues arising from food spoilage to the fore, making food safety control essential. Simple and fast screening methods have been developed to detect pathogens and biomarkers indicating the freshness of food for safety. In addition to the traditional, sequential, chemical analytical and microbiological methods, fast, highly sensitive, automated methods suitable for serial tests have appeared. At the same time, biosensor research is also developing dynamically worldwide, both in terms of the analytes to be determined and the technical toolkit. Consequently, the rapid development of biosensors, including electrochemical-based biosensors, has led to significant advantages in the quantitative detection and screening of food contaminants. These techniques show great specificity for the biomarkers tested and provide adequate analytical accuracy even in complex food matrices. In our review article, we summarize, in separate chapters, the electrochemical biosensors developed for the most important food groups and the food safety issues they can ensure, with particular respect to meat and fish products, milk and dairy products, as well as alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages.

Advancements in Nanofiber-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Diagnostic Applications.

Biosensors are analytical tools that can be used as simple, real-time, and effective devices in clinical diagnosis, food analysis, and environmental monitoring. Nanoscale functional materials possess unique properties such as a large surface-to-volume ratio, making them useful for biomedical diagnostic purposes. Nanoengineering has resulted in the increased use of nanoscale functional materials in biosensors. Various types of nanostructures i.e., 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D, have been intensively employed to enhance biosensor selectivity, limit of detection, sensitivity, and speed of response time to display results. In particular, carbon nanotubes and nanofibers have been extensively employed in electrochemical biosensors, which have become an interdisciplinary frontier between material science and viral disease detection. This review provides an overview of the current research activities in nanofiber-based electrochemical biosensors for diagnostic purposes. The clinical applications of these nanobiosensors are also highlighted, along with a discussion of the future directions for these materials in diagnostics. The aim of this review is to stimulate a broader interest in developing nanofiber-based electrochemical biosensors and improving their applications in disease diagnosis. In this review, we summarize some of the most recent advances achieved in point of care (PoC) electrochemical biosensor applications, focusing on new materials and modifiers enabling biorecognition that have led to improved sensitivity, specificity, stability, and response time.

In situ reduction of gold nanoparticles-decorated MXenes-based electrochemical sensing platform for KRAS gene detection.

In this work, gold nanoparticles@Ti3C2 MXenes nanocomposites with excellent properties were combined with toehold-mediated DNA strand displacement reaction to construct an electrochemical circulating tumor DNA biosensor. The gold nanoparticles were synthesized in situ on the surface of Ti3C2 MXenes as a reducing and stabilizing agent. The good electrical conductivity of the gold nanoparticles@Ti3C2 MXenes composite and the nucleic acid amplification strategy of enzyme-free toehold-mediated DNA strand displacement reaction can be used to efficiently and specifically detect the non-small cell cancer biomarker circulating tumor DNA KRAS gene. The biosensor has a linear detection range of 10fM -10nM and a detection limit of 0.38fM, and also efficiently distinguishes single base mismatched DNA sequences. The biosensor has been successfully used for the sensitive detection of KRAS gene G12D, which has excellent potential for clinical analysis and provides a new idea for the preparation of novel MXenes-based two-dimensional composites and their application in electrochemical DNA biosensors.

Framing of Poly(arylene-ethynylene) around Carbon Nanotubes and Iodine Doping for the Electrochemical Detection of Dopamine.

Dopamine (DA), an organic biomolecule that acts as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter, is essential in regulating emotions and metabolism in living organisms. The accurate determination of DA is important because it indicates early signs of serious neurological disorders. Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have received considerable attention in recent years as promising porous materials with an unrivaled degree of tunability for electrochemical biosensing applications. This study adopted a solvothermal strategy for the synthesis of a conjugated microporous poly(arylene ethynylene)-4 (CMP-4) network using the Sonagashira-Hagihara cross-coupling reaction. To increase the crystallinity and electrical conductivity of the material, CMP-4 was enveloped around carbon nanotubes (CNTs), followed by iodine doping. When used as an electrochemical probe, the as-synthesized material (I2-CMP-CNT-4) exhibited excellent selectivity and sensitivity to dopamine in the phosphate-buffered solution. The detection limits of the electrochemical sensor were 1 and 1.7 μM based on cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV).

Application of Polypyrrole-Based Electrochemical Biosensor for the Early Diagnosis of Colorectal Cancer

Although colorectal cancer (CRC) is easy to treat surgically and can be combined with postoperative chemotherapy, its five-year survival rate is still not optimistic. Therefore, developing sensitive, efficient, and compliant detection technology is essential to diagnose CRC at an early stage, providing more opportunities for effective treatment and intervention. Currently, the widely used clinical CRC detection methods include endoscopy, stool examination, imaging modalities, and tumor biomarker detection; among them, blood biomarkers, a noninvasive strategy for CRC screening, have shown significant potential for early diagnosis, prediction, prognosis, and staging of cancer. As shown by recent studies, electrochemical biosensors have attracted extensive attention for the detection of blood biomarkers because of their advantages of being cost-effective and having sound sensitivity, good versatility, high selectivity, and a fast response. Among these, nano-conductive polymer materials, especially the conductive polymer polypyrrole (PPy), have been broadly applied to improve sensing performance due to their excellent electrical properties and the flexibility of their surface properties, as well as their easy preparation and functionalization and good biocompatibility. This review mainly discusses the characteristics of PPy-based biosensors, their synthetic methods, and their application for the detection of CRC biomarkers. Finally, the opportunities and challenges related to the use of PPy-based sensors for diagnosing CRC are also discussed.

Electrochemical Biosensors for Monitoring of Drug-DNA Interactions.

The binding of the therapeutic agents to the nucleic acids is one of the paramount issues in the drug development area that is studied by various techniques. Electrochemical studies have a big portion in this area due to the fact that they allow designing of novel monitoring systems that have superior properties such as being feasible and sustainable. These electrochemical monitoring tools analyze these interactions in in vitro conditions and give the results precisely and rapidly. In the scope of this manuscript, the electrochemical monitoring platforms developed for the determination of DNA-drug interactions were under the spotlight. The electrode types mostly used for the electrochemical monitoring of drug-DNA interactions were described. The binding mechanisms of the drugs to the DNA structure were explained, and the evaluation strategies of the interactions using electrochemical techniques were stated. Most of the reports of the last 25 years were given, and some of the electrochemical biosensor applications including both voltammetric and impedimetric studies were explained in detail. Furthermore, it is possible to reach nanomaterials/biomaterials-based biosensor platforms for the monitoring of DNA-drug interactions, and these applications were in the scope of this manuscript. The future aspects of these areas were also stated.

Functionalized Ti3C2Tx Nanosheets Based Biosensor for Point-of-Care Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Antigen

MXenes are considered a promising class of two-dimensional materials with extraordinary physical and electrochemical properties. Distinguished features like high specific surface area and outstanding electrical conductivity make them suitable for electrochemical biosensing applications. Here, we report the development of a biosensor involving the functionalized MXene–titanium carbide nanosheets (Ti3C2Tx-NS) and monoclonal antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein (anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAb) to design a point-of-care device for detection of the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein (SARS-CoV-2 NP) antigen. Few-layered titanium carbide nanosheets (denoted as FL-Ti3C2Tx-NS) have been synthesized using a single-step etching and delamination method and characterized using optical and electron microscopy techniques revealing the suitability for immunosensing applications. Binding studies revealed the excellent affinity between the biosensor and the SARS-CoV-2 NP. Electrochemical detection of SARS-CoV-2 NP is performed using differential pulse voltammetry and read by a smartphone-based user interface. The proposed FL-Ti3C2Tx-NS based biosensor offers the detection of SARS-CoV-2 NP with a limit of detection of 0.91 nM in a wide detection range in spiked saliva samples. Additionally, there is no cross-reactivity in the presence of potential interferants like SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein and bovine serum albumin. These findings demonstrate the potential of MXenes in developing a rapid and reliable tool for SARS-CoV-2 NP detection. While we report the biosensing of SARS-CoV-2 NP, our system also paves the way for the detection of other SARS-CoV-2 antigens like spike protein or other biomolecules based on antigen–antibody interactions.

2D Metal-Organic Frameworks: Properties, Synthesis, and Applications in Electrochemical and Optical Biosensors.

Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials like graphene, layered double hydroxides, etc., have received increasing attention owing to their unique properties imparted by their 2D structure. The newest member in this family is based on metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), which have been long known for their exceptional physicochemical properties-high surface area, tunable pore size, catalytic properties, etc., to list a few. 2D MOFs are promising materials for various applications as they combine the exciting properties of 2D materials and MOFs. Recently, they have been extensively used in biosensors by virtue of their enormous surface area and abundant, accessible active sites. In this review, we provide a synopsis of the recent progress in the field of 2D MOFs for sensor applications. Initially, the properties and synthesis techniques of 2D MOFs are briefly outlined with examples. Further, electrochemical and optical biosensors based on 2D MOFs are summarized, and the associated challenges are outlined.

Electrochemical biosensors based on saliva electrolytes for rapid detection and diagnosis.

In recent years, electrochemical biosensors (ECBSs) have shown significant potential for real-time disease diagnosis and in situ physical condition monitoring. As a multi-constituent oral fluid comprising various disease signaling biomarkers, saliva has drawn much attention in the field of point-of-care (POC) testing. In particular, during the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, ECBSs which hold the simplicity of a single-step assay compared with the multi-step assay of traditional testing methods are expected to relieve the human and economic burden caused by the massive and long-term sample testing process. Noteworthily, ECBSs for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in saliva have already been developed and may replace current testing methods. Furthermore, the detection scope has expanded from routine indices such as sugar and uric acid to abnormal biomarkers for early-stage disease detection and drug level monitoring, which further facilitated the evolution of ECBSs in the last 5 years. This review is divided into several main sections. First, we discussed the latest advancements and representative research on ECBSs for saliva testing. Then, we focused on a novel kind of ECBS, organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs), which hold great advantages of high sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio and on-site detection. Finally, application of ECBSs with integrated portable platforms in oral cavities, which lead to powerful auxiliary testing means for telemedicine, has also been discussed.

Recent Developments and Applications of Microbial Electrochemical Biosensors.

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of microbial electrochemical biosensors, which are a unique class of biosensors that utilize the metabolic activity of microorganisms to convert chemical signals into electrical signals. The principles and mechanisms of these biosensors are discussed, including the different types of microorganisms that can be used. The various applications of microbial electrochemical biosensors in fields such as environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and food safety are also explored. The chapter concludes with a discussion of future research directions and potential advancements in the field of microbial electrochemical biosensors.

Performance Analysis of the Dielectrically Modulated Junction-Less Nanotube Field Effect Transistor for Biomolecule Detection.

The design of a high-performance Dielectrically Modulated Field Effect Transistor (DMFET) with smaller device dimension (channel length ≤ 100nm) has recently drawn significant research attention for point-of-care (POC) diagenesis applications. Driven by this paradigm, a Hetero-Gate Metal Dielectrically Modulated Junction-Less Nanotube Field Effect Transistor (DM-JLNFET) architecture is introduced and systematically investigated for label-free electrochemical biosensing application with the help of extensive numerical device simulations. The DM-JLNFET is carefully designed to exploit the advantages of superior gate control over channel electrostatics and electron injection component as well as strong immunity towards the short channel effects that lead to a notably high sensing performance compared to its conventional counterparts. In this context, the underlying physics of the transduction mechanism is analyzed in detail based on the device electrostatics and the carrier transport mechanism. The sensing performance of the proposed biosensor is quantified in terms of the drain current and threshold voltage sensitivities, which represents the relative modulations in these parameters with biomolecule conjugation. Typically, the DM-JLNFET exhibits a drain current and threshold voltage sensitivities as high as 1×10 12 and 0.70, respectively, for biomolecule dielectric constant above 2. Furthermore, the sensing performance demonstrates strong immunities towards non-uniform cavity occupancy. Finally, extensive comparative performance analysis with Dielectrically Modulated Nanowire Field Effect Transistor (DM-NWFET) is performed. The results exhibit that the proposed DM-JLNFET can offer more than 100% and eight orders of magnitude improvements in the threshold voltage and drain current sensitivities, respectively, for a range of small biomolecule dielectric constants.

Electrochemical Biosensors Based on Carbon Nanomaterials for Diagnosis of Human Respiratory Diseases.

In recent years, respiratory diseases have increasingly become a global concern, largely due to the outbreak of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). This inevitably causes great attention to be given to the development of highly efficient and minimal or non-invasive methods for the diagnosis of respiratory diseases. And electrochemical biosensors based on carbon nanomaterials show great potential in fulfilling the requirement, not only because of the superior performance of electrochemical analysis, but also given the excellent properties of the carbon nanomaterials. In this paper, we review the most recent advances in research, development and applications of electrochemical biosensors based on the use of carbon nanomaterials for diagnosis of human respiratory diseases in the last 10 years. We first briefly introduce the characteristics of several common human respiratory diseases, including influenza, COVID-19, pulmonary fibrosis, tuberculosis and lung cancer. Then, we describe the working principles and fabrication of various electrochemical biosensors based on carbon nanomaterials used for diagnosis of these respiratory diseases. Finally, we summarize the advantages, challenges, and future perspectives for the currently available electrochemical biosensors based on carbon nanomaterials for detecting human respiratory diseases.

Bioadhesive Gauze Embedded with Chitosan-Butein Bioconjugate: A Redox-Active pH Sensor Platform

With the ever-growing global wound care market, demand for robust redox-active healthcare material is obvious for the construction of wearable sensor platforms. Surface reactive functional group-rich material like chitosan holds huge potential for electrochemical biosensor application. Herein, a metal-free redox-active chitosan-butein (CSB) bioconjugate is processed into epidermal bioadhesive electrode material useful for pH sensors promising toward wound site analysis. A two-electrode system devised for conducting carbon-reinforced silver chloride paste and CSB-modified carbon/silver chloride matrix was used as a reference and working electrodes, respectively. Dimensions of working and reference electrodes (4 mm) were designed by 2D cutter plotter-assisted stenciling. The cross-sectional topology of the constructed adhesive CSB-sensor platform exhibits an average surface thickness of 183 ± 2 μm. Cyclic voltammetric analysis revealed the inherent 2e-/2H+ transfer attributed to the catechol OH groups of graft polymerized CSB modified on adhesive gauze. As-fabricated modified electrode substrates exhibit distinguishable potential differences with respect to electrolytes of varied pH (between 5 to 9), promising for wound site analysis.

Hierarchical gold dispersed nickel oxide nanodendrites microarrays as a potential platform for the sensitive electrochemical detection of glucose and lactate in human serum and urine

Tremendous demands for the successful design of nanoarchitectured microarrays-based signal transducers with high diagnostic sensitivity and selectivity, and abrupt clinical assessment have energized the intensive biosensors and bioelectronics research. In the present work, we demonstrate self-sustain gold dispersed on nickel oxide nanodentrites microarrays (Au@NiO NDMA) on nickel (Ni) microelectrodes (NME) towards the electrochemical sensing of glucose (GLU) and lactate (LA). The growth of novel gold @ nickel oxide nanodentrites microarrays utilizes self-organizing hyperbranched constructing wedges of nickel microelectrode passivation in HNO₃ tracked by galvanic replacement of Ni atom moiety with Au atom. The process requires no surfactant, polymer, or catalytic process relying only on this simple procedure. The result is an Au-NiO microelectrode with properties suitable for use in biosensing platforms. The as-developed gold @ nickel oxide nanodentrites microarrays employ as the potential microsensor for the detection of glucose and lactate in real samples (human serum and urine samples). The present sensor exhibits a broad linear detection range from 10.0 μM to 5.0 mM for glucose with a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.99; and from 100.0 μM to 10.0 mM for lactate with a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.99, high sensitivity, long-term durability and high practicability. The current gold @ nickel oxide nanodentrites microarrays-based multi-functional architectures can deal exceptional properties and synergistic belongings, and may be utilized in numerous electrochemical biosensing applications.