Apple Orchard Systems Research Articles

SYDRA: toward agroecological cider apple orchard systems

SYDRA: toward agroecological cider apple orchard systems

Validation of a behavior observation form for geese reared in agroforestry systems

Agroforestry systems, which are based on the integration of trees and animals, represent a useful practice for implementing the “One Welfare” concept. Geese could adapt well to these systems due to their kinetic and grazing abilities. However, the lack of specific ethograms and animal-based measures have not yet allowed a deep assessment of their welfare and behavior. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a protocol to evaluate the behavior of geese reared in two agroforestry systems (i.e., apple orchard and vineyard). Thus, a behavior observation form (BOF) including a specific ethogram was proposed, and its interobserver reliability, content, criterion and construct validity were determined. Moreover, the influence of the time of day and type of agroforestry system on geese's behavior was also investigated. Agreement and principal component analyses, as well as the comparison between data collected through direct observation by the BOF and indirect observation by a computerized system, supported the reliability and validity of the proposed protocol. While the BOF also highlighted differences in the behavior expressed by the geese according to the time of day and the environmental context, both the vineyard and apple orchard systems seem to meet their biological and behavioral needs.

Performance of apple orchard systems in the Nordic climate

Performance of apple orchard systems in the Nordic climate

Temperate fruit farming in fragile lands of the Northwestern Himalayan region: Implications for subsoil nutrient availability, nutrient stock and soil quality

AbstractIn recent years, soil fertility in the Northwestern Himalayan (NWH) region has deteriorated partly due to accelerated soil erosion but mainly due to ineffective nutrient management for field crops. However, it is largely unknown whether long‐term temperate fruit farming has adverse effects on the soil fertility in NWH or not. Therefore, we conducted a study with the purpose of evaluating the impact of different land uses in the NWH ecosystem, namely: peach orchard (PO), apple orchard (AO), fertile‐fallow land (FL), and barren land (BL) on soil physico‐chemical characters, nutrient storage capacity, and soil quality index (SQI), along a soil‐depth gradient. A total of 116 composite soil samples [four treatments (i.e., land uses), 4‐ soil depths (0–0.2, 0.2–0.4, 0.4–0.6, and 0.6–0.8 m) and 5, 9, 9, and 6 replications for PO, AO, FL, and BL systems, respectively] were collected for laboratory analyses. Across depths, the soils under temperate fruit plantations had better soil physical conditions (i.e., lower bulk density and higher porosity) over FL and BL lands. The soils in this study can be categorized as slightly acidic to near neutral in soil reaction. Soils under temperate fruit plantations (PO and AO), averaged over depths, had significantly (p < 0.05) less quantity of soil organic C, available nutrients (i.e., primary‐, secondary‐, and micro‐nutrients), nutrient storage capacity, and indices of soil quality, as compared to FL lands. These unfavourable effects were augmented in subsoils (0.2–0.8 m) than topsoils (0.0–0.2 m) affecting secondary‐ and micro‐nutrients more than primary‐nutrients. Results further revealed that these lands display a less favourable (i.e., very high) C:N ratio that could easily be degraded if brought under intensive farming. Restoration of depleted soil fertility in temperate fruit‐tree‐based ecosystems of NWH could be achieved through incentive‐based building‐up of soil organic matter and adoption of a soil‐test‐based nutrient management regime.

Costs and Profitability for Mechanized Pruning and Harvest in Two Cider Apple Orchard Systems

Growers need reliable information on costs and returns they can expect for a cider apple (Malus ×domestica) orchard suitable for mechanization because specialty cider apples can only be used for making cider, and returns are expected to be lower than for fresh table apples. This study estimates the costs, returns, and net profit that growers may realize by planting cider apples in either a freestanding or tall spindle system that use a mechanical harvester (both systems) and mechanical hedger (tall spindle system only). Results show that both production systems have positive net returns during full production, and their respective break-even returns are lower than the current market price, demonstrating that both systems are potentially profitable investments. Results also show that the tall spindle system is potentially more profitable due to the advantages of earlier start of fruiting and higher crop yield. The estimated net returns of the tall spindle system during full production are nearly 4 times higher than that of a freestanding system. At a discount rate of 10%, the net present value (NPV) of the tall spindle system is positive and payback period is 13 years, whereas the NPV of the freestanding system is negative. The discount rate represents the time value of money and reflects the perception of risk for the investment. The break-even discount rates (i.e., NPV = 0) are ≈6.88% for the freestanding system and 10.78% for the tall spindle system. Sensitivity scenarios found that when all else was constant, profitability increased as market price, crop yield, and production area increase and also when the cost of the harvester decreased. Because mechanical harvesters are expensive, profitability tends to be more favorable for larger farms due to economies of scale. Also, a high picking efficiency is important because fruit that falls on the ground is considered crop yield loss and reduces the gross income from cider apples.

Apple Fruit Growth and Quality Depend on the Position in Tree Canopy.

Modern apple orchard systems should guarantee homogeneity of fruit internal and external qualities and fruit maturity parameters. However, when orchards reach productive age, a variation of these parameters takes place and mostly it is related to uneven light distribution within the tree canopy. The aim of the study was to evaluate the canopy position’s effect on fruit internal and external quality parameters. This is the first study where all the main fruit quality and maturation parameters were evaluated on the same trees and were related to the light conditions and photosynthetic parameters. Four fruit positions were tested: top of the apple tree, lower inside part of the canopy, and east and west sides of the apple tree. Fruit quality variability was significant for fruit size, blush, colour indices, total sugar content, dry matter concentration, accumulation of secondary metabolites and radical scavenging activity. Fruit position in the canopy did not affect flesh firmness and fruit maturity parameters such as the starch index, Streif index and respiration rate. At the Lithuanian geographical location (55°60′ N), significantly, the highest fruit quality was achieved at the top of the apple tree. The tendency was established that apple fruits from the west side of the canopy have better fruit quality than from the east side and it could be related to better light conditions at the west side of the tree. Inside the canopy, fruits were distinguished only by the higher accumulation of triterpenic compounds and higher content of malic acid. Light is a main factor of fruit quality variation, thus all orchard management practices, including narrow two-dimensional tree canopies and reflecting ground covers which improve light penetration through the tree canopy, should be applied.

Light utilisation, leaf canopy properties and fruiting responses of narrow-row, planar cordon apple orchard planting systems—A study of the productivity of apple

Growth (annual increase in total dry mass) and productivity of agricultural cropping systems depend on the fractional interception of total seasonal light energy. With single-row hedgerow intensive apple orchard systems the reported maximum light utilisation is ∼60% fractional interception. This limitation is determined by row layout and hedgerow tree architecture, constraining apple orchard productivity to maxima of 100–120 t ha−1. We hypothesised that reducing the orchard system between-row spacing to 1.5 m to 2.0 m would increase light interception and productivity, using two-dimensional, narrow planar hedgerow trees to maintain within-canopy irradiance. Trees comprised 10 vertical fruiting stems, equally spaced along 3 m of horizontal cordon (the planar cordon tree), requiring 2222 and 1667 trees per ha. By the seventh year the maximum fractional light interception (LI) was 77% in 1.5 m row plots and 66% in 2.0 m row plots, averaged across four cultivars (‘Gala’, ‘Scifresh’, ‘Scilate’, ‘Fuji’). The LAI-light interception response relationship of 6- and 7-year-old plots indicated a potential maximum light interception above 80% at a LAI of 3.5–5.0. Annual yields increased in proportion to increasing annual maximum fractional light interception from year two onwards and described an exponential response: Yield = 5.085e0.0483LI, (R2 = 0.88). The yield response to maximum fractional light interception exceeded the hypothesised 169 t ha−1 at 90% light interception in spindle systems proposed by Palmer et al. (2002). The yield–light utilisation behaviour of planar cordon systems indicate the productivity potential of apple as a crop has been under-estimated; a theoretical maximum annual yield of market-quality apples at ∼90% light utilisation (≥ 2000 MJ m−2 light energy per season) is estimated to be in a range of 250–315 t ha−1. Productivity amongst cultivars and regions will be influenced by the cultivar genetics for fruit size, relative maturation dates and production microclimates, because these orchard systems will function at the upper limit of light utilisation.

The relationship between soil bacteria and metal nutrient availability for uptake of apple trees in Chinese orchards

Soil bacteria are widely recognized for their roles in nutrient cycling, such as for nitrogen and phosphorus, and for promoting soil health. However, the relationship between soil bacteria and the availability of calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper and zinc under different climatic conditions in orchard systems remains poorly understood. Here, we explored the relationship between soil bacteria and metal nutrient availability and uptake by apple trees based on 36 soil samples from three climate zones that span the major apple-producing areas in China. The results indicated that six phyla (e.g., Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, Gemmatimonadetes, Nitrospirae, and Proteobacteria) in the soil bacterial communities were positively related to the metal nutrients availability, especially to calcium (16 OTUs) and magnesium (19 OTUs). At the class level, Alphaproteobacteria improved the availability of calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese and copper, while Actinobacteria improved the availability of zinc and altered absorption by the roots and the contents in leaves. We found that the underground bacterial community diversity was determined by climatic conditions and soil properties, which altered the effect of bacteria on soil metal nutrients availability, and led to differences of nutritional content in the aboveground plant portions. Therefore, soil bacteria played a central role in this process for sustainable development in apple orchard systems.

The Features of the First Year Inputs of Materials, Labor force and Money in New Apple Orchard Systems

The Features of the First Year Inputs of Materials, Labor force and Money in New Apple Orchard Systems

Fruit canopy positioning affects fruit calcium and potassium concentrations, disorder incidence, and fruit quality for ‘Honeycrisp’ apple

One advantage of high-density apple orchard systems is homogeneity in fruit maturity and quality. However, even in modern orchard systems, variation in fruit quality occurs. ‘Honeycrisp’ apple is susceptible to numerous disorders including bitter pit, soft scald, and poor colour development. Heterogeneity in fruit quality and nutrient distribution can lead to variation in fruit storability. Here, we tested the effect of within-canopy position on fruit calcium and potassium concentrations, quality, and disorder development for fruit across nine representative high-density orchards. Calcium concentrations were greater in the upper part of the canopy compared with the lower part. Potassium was more evenly distributed within the canopy. Calcium concentrations and potassium-to-calcium ratios were significantly correlated with mean bitter pit incidence, which was between 20% and 30% in the lower half of the tree and <15% in the upper half. Fruit quality was significantly affected by the position in the canopy and was not constrained to only colour, but also other quality metrics such as dry matter, size, and firmness. Additionally, the internal ethylene concentrations (IECs) of fruit in the upper canopy were approximately 50% of the IECs for fruit from the lower canopy. With an increased emphasis on uniformity and predictability of fruit for long-term storage, these results underscore the importance of understanding variation within the canopy. Even for high-density systems, significant variation in fruit quality can occur and fruit from the upper canopy has lower disorder incidence and higher fruit quality than fruit from the lower canopy.

Distribution and harmfulness of moniliosis in intensive apple orchard systems

Distribution and harmfulness of moniliosis in intensive apple orchard systems

Smallholders’ apple-based agroforestry systems in the north-western highlands of Ethiopia

Apple-based agroforestry system could significantly improve the livelihoods of small-scale farmers in the drought-prone areas of north-western Ethiopia. This study, based on 200 households’ farm interviews, aims at providing information and analysis on how to improve such systems and therefore foster apple orchard systems in Ethiopia. It examines factors influencing farmers’ decisions on land allocation to apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) orchards and the respective number of apple trees planted using fractional probit and negative binomial regression models. Results indicate that farmers, among other characteristics, with education, received training, being experienced, participating in off-farm activities, having less labor force in the household but more financial means to invest in orchards, are more likely to establish apple orchards. Insect pests and diseases, theft, frost damage and water stress, poor agronomic practices and market restrictions are identified as constraints to apple production systems. The study has important policy implications so as to create more awareness through education, build capacity through the provision of short-term training on apple orchard management practices, introduce apple specific production packages and extension support services, and support off-farm activities to employ extra labor and generate cash to invest in fruit orchards that will help resource-poor orchard farmers.

Can light interception of intensive apple and pear orchard systems be increased with new approaches to tree design?

Can light interception of intensive apple and pear orchard systems be increased with new approaches to tree design?

Tree growth and crop yield of five cultivars in two organic apple orchard systems in Vermont, USA, 2006-2013

Tree growth and crop yield of five cultivars in two organic apple orchard systems in Vermont, USA, 2006-2013

Long-term economic evaluation of five cultivars in two organic apple orchard systems in Vermont, USA, 2006-2013

Long-term economic evaluation of five cultivars in two organic apple orchard systems in Vermont, USA, 2006-2013

Evaluation of crab apples for apple production in high-density apple orchards

Crab apple cultivars, 'Maypole', 'Tuscan', and 'Manchurian', were evaluated as potential pollinizers of major apple cultivars, 'Fuji', 'Hongro', and 'Tsugaru', cultivated in high-density apple orchard systems. Numerous cultivar characteristics, including blooming time, pollen germination, fruit set, disease and pest resistance, and self-incompatibility, were examined. The blooming times of both 'Maypole' and 'Tuscan' ranged from April 19 to May 5, which was 2-4 days earlier than those of the major commercial apple cultivars. PCR analysis did not reveal the presence of any of the S-alleles (S1, S3, S7, or S9) identified in major commercial apple cultivars. In addition, the percentage of the fruit set was high after trees were artificially fertilized with crab apple pollen. Artificially cross-pollinated fruits were of similar or higher quality than open-pollinated fruits. They also demonstrated resistance to apple blotch, sooty blotch, and fly speck. The results indicate that the two crab apples, 'Maypole' and 'Tuscan' would be potential candidates for pollinizers of major apple cultivars in Korea. Use of the pollen of these crap apples in commercial production will improve fruit quality and promote sustainable and robust fruit production.

Life cycle analysis reveals higher agroecological benefits of organic and low-input apple production

Conventional agricultural systems depend on high inputs of fertilizers and toxic pesticides that are a threat for human health and the environment. Such issues are rapidly changing agriculture in Europe. As a consequence sustainable production systems are currently developed as safer alternatives, for instance organic and low-input systems use of mechanical and biological methods versus toxic substances. However, there is a lack of knowledge on the overall impact of these alternative systems on toxicity, energy use, and global warming, notably for perennial crops such as apple orchards, which require the control of many pests. Here we present the first analysis of the environmental impacts of nine apple orchard systems using life cycle analysis. We used data from a survey of apple orchard systems located in Southern France, covering 2006–2009. Conventional, low-input, and organic orchards were planted with three apple cultivars differing in their disease susceptibility, hence designing nine apple systems, with the Golden Delicious conventional system being considered as the reference. Our results show that low-input systems planted with low disease susceptibility Melrose cultivar decreased environmental impacts by 6–99 %. Organic systems had one of the highest impacts per mass unit due to low yields, but showed low impacts per area unit planted with low-susceptibility cultivars generally. Potential toxicity was decreased by 2–40 % for human, 71–82 % for aquatic life, and 97–99 % for terrestrial life using mechanical control versus toxic pesticides to control weeds and diseases.

Pesticide use in current and innovative apple orchard systems

Recent European incentive policies clearly targeted decreasing pesticide use in all agricultural systems as a key option to reduce environmental hazards and health risks. To reduce pesticide use is challenging in orchards where pesticides are recurrently applied to control numerous pests and diseases, but crucial to improve fruit production sustainability. Agricultural research has provided alternatives to chemical control for the management of a single pest or disease, but has very seldom addressed the design of overall sustainable strategies aiming at reducing pesticide use. New insights permitted by system approaches are now developing. Here, we report the level of pesticide use and the agri-environmental performances of three protection systems of apple orchards surveyed from 2005 to 2008: (1) conventional, (2) low-input and (3) organic farming. To assess the significance of the cultivar in decreasing pesticide use, these protection systems were combined with three cultivars differing in scab susceptibility: ‘Ariane’ (Vf-resistant), ‘Melrose’ (low-susceptibility) and ‘Golden Delicious’ (susceptible). Thus, nine ‘management × cultivar’ apple orchard systems were assessed. The level of pesticide use was the highest in conventional ‘Golden Delicious’ and in ‘Golden Delicious’ plots whatever the protection system. A 43–56% decrease in pesticide use was observed in ‘Ariane’ and ‘Melrose’ in both low-input and organic farming protection systems compared to conventional ‘Golden Delicious’ as reference. Only low-input ‘Melrose’ and low-input ‘Ariane’ systems achieved a level of yield and fruit damages similar to the corresponding conventional cultivars under reduced pesticide use, also permitting reduced environmental impacts. But even the low-input ‘Melrose’ least pesticide-dependant system was far from being pesticide-free, suggesting that current straight-designed mono-clone orchards are hardly appropriate to drastically reduce pesticide use and that the range of commercial apple cultivars should be renewed to offer more robust cultivars.

The impact of soil carbon management and environmental conditions on N mineralization

Soil carbon (C) management is identified as a key element of sustainable agriculture, and an increase in nitrogen (N) mineralization rates is expected with an increase in soil C. However, any practical recommendation for using soil C management to substitute the application of synthetic N fertilizer needs to account simultaneously for other important agronomic variables and environmental conditions. For this purpose we investigated the simultaneous impact of soil C management, environmental conditions, and soil structure on N mineralization in two apple orchard systems in Havelock North, New Zealand. One system is an organic orchard using regular compost applications and the other is a neighboring integrated orchard with no external inputs of organic matter. The soil type, texture, and climate are identical in both orchards. We selected different temperatures (10°C, 15°C, and 20°C) and soil moistures (−30, −100, and −300 kPa) as the environmental conditions for N mineralization. Simultaneously, the hot-water extractable C (HWC) contents were measured and served as the indicator for the soil C management of the orchards. To analyze the impact of soil structure, the N mineralization of undisturbed cores was compared with that of disturbed samples. The net N mineralization of the soil in the organic orchard was on average six times higher than that in the integrated orchard. At the same time, in the organic orchard the HWC contents at the beginning of the N mineralization experiment were about two times higher than in the integrated orchard. In a multiple regression as a practical recommendation for the orchards of our case study, we could explain 84% of the variability of N mineralization rates using HWC and environmental conditions as the independent variables. The HWC content was the most significant variable in the multiple regression model and showed that soil C management has a more prominent role than the environmental conditions. Soil C management such as regular compost applications which increase the soil’s HWC contents can also be used to manage N mineralization. The significant difference between the undisturbed and disturbed samples showed the soil structure can have an effect on N mineralization.

The impact of soil carbon management on soil macropore structure: a comparison of two apple orchard systems in New Zealand

SummaryWe analysed the long‐term effect of the addition of organic carbon (C) on the macropore structure of topsoils. For this purpose we compared the top 50 mm in the tree rows of an organic apple orchard with those in an adjacent conventional orchard with the same soil type, texture and previous land‐use history in New Zealand. After 12 years the topsoils of the organic orchard had 32% more soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestered than those of the conventional, integrated orchard because of regular compost applications and grass coverage. We quantified the macropore structure (macropores = pores > 0.3 mm) of nine undisturbed soil columns (43 mm long, 20 × 17 mm in the plane) within each orchard using 3D X‐ray computed tomography. The macroporosity (7.5 ± 2.1%) of the organic orchard soil was significantly greater than that of the integrated orchard (2.4 ± 0.5%). The mean macropore radius was similar in the organic and integrated systems, with 0.41 ± 0.02 mm and 0.39 ± 0.01 mm, respectively. The connectivity of macropores tended to be greater in the organic than in the integrated system, but this was not statistically significant. The pronounced soil C management in the organic orchard increased both the formation of macropores by roots and a larger fresh weight of anecic earthworms, and the stabilization of the macropore structure was increased by a larger aggregate stability and microbial biomass compared with those of the integrated orchard. We simulated the diffusion through the measured pore structures of segments of the soil columns. The segments had the length of the mean aggregate size of the soils. The relative diffusion coefficients at this aggregate scale were significantly greater in the organic (0.024 ± 0.0009) than in the integrated (0.0056 ± 0.008) orchard. In a regression analysis with both the porosity and connectivity of macropores as significant variables, 76% of the variability of the relative diffusion coefficients was explained in the integrated, and, with the porosity as the only significant factor, 71% of the variability in the organic orchard. We hypothesize that a greater relative diffusion coefficient at the aggregate scale would reduce nitrous oxide (N2O) production and emission in a wet soil and suggest that soil C management combats climate change directly by sequestering C and indirectly in the form of a reduction of N2O emissions, by creating more macropores.