Appetitive Behavior Research Articles

Progressive ratio (PR) schedules and the sipometer: Do they measure wanting, liking, and/or reward? A tribute to Anthony Sclafani and Karen Ackroff

This paper honors the contributions made by Anthony (Tony) Sclafani and Karen Ackroff to both the Columbia University Seminar on Appetitive Behavior and to the field of ingestive behavior in general. We review their use of the progressive ratio (PR) licking paradigm, to determine whether the taste of sucrose, independent of its post-ingestive effects, is always positively reinforcing in animals. They demonstrated a monotonic increase in licking as concentration increased, and obtained results identical to those obtained with a lever-pressing paradigm, but licking was easier and more natural than lever pressing. The PR paradigm was translated to evaluate liquid food reward value in humans. An instrument (the sipometer) was devised that initially permitted a few seconds access to small amounts of a sweet beverage as the participants increased the time to obtain it in 3–5-sec increments. The device went through two refinements and currently delivers the reinforcer and measures the pressure exerted to obtain it. The sipometer is compared with other techniques for measuring motivation and reward. The use of the sipometer and the PR method are discussed in relation to the theoretical challenges inherent in measuring motivation and pleasure, from both psychological and behavioral economics perspectives, and why it is or is not important to separate these processes for both theoretical and practical applications.

The Effects of the Monoamine Stabilizer (\u2212)-OSU6162 on Binge-Like Eating and Cue-Controlled Food-Seeking Behavior in Rats

Binge-eating disorder (BED) is characterized by recurring episodes of excessive consumption of palatable food and an increased sensitivity to food cues. Patients with BED display an addiction-like symptomatology and the dopamine system might be a potential treatment target. The clinically safe monoamine stabilizer (−)-OSU6162 (OSU6162) restores dopaminergic dysfunction in long-term alcohol-drinking rats and shows promise as a novel treatment for alcohol use disorder. Here, the effects of OSU6162 on consummatory (binge-like eating) and appetitive (cue-controlled seeking) behavior motivated by chocolate-flavored sucrose pellets were evaluated in non-food-restricted male Lister Hooded rats. OSU6162 significantly reduced binge-like intake of chocolate-flavored sucrose pellets without affecting prior chow intake. Furthermore, OSU6162 significantly reduced the cue-controlled seeking of chocolate-flavored sucrose pellets under a second-order schedule of reinforcement before, but not after, the delivery and ingestion of reward, indicating a selective effect on incentive motivational processes. In contrast, the dopamine D2/D3 receptor antagonist raclopride reduced the seeking of chocolate-flavored sucrose pellets both pre- and post reward ingestion and also reduced responding under simpler schedules of seeking behavior. The D1/5 receptor antagonist SCH23390 had no effect on instrumental behavior under any reinforcement schedule tested. Finally, local administration of OSU6162 into the nucleus accumbens core, but not dorsolateral striatum, selectively reduced cue-controlled sucrose seeking. In conclusion, the present results show that OSU6162 reduces binge-like eating behavior and attenuates the impact of cues on seeking of palatable food. This indicates that OSU6162 might serve as a novel BED medication.

Clearing up the court: sex and the endocrine basis of display-court manipulation

Sexual selection can drive the evolution of novel traits, including behaviours, that may arise in sex-specific patterns and be under sex-steroid hormone control. In some polygynous species, males actively manipulate their display environment, likely to influence female perception of male sexual traits. As a presumptive appetitive reproductive behaviour, the motivation to manipulate the display environment may be activated by reproductive hormones and the degree of motivation may vary across individuals. To evaluate these possibilities, we examined the hormone dependence of court-clearing behaviour in lek-breeding golden-collared manakins, Manacus vitellinus, of Panama where males clean the rainforest floor of debris within display courts and maintain these cleaned courts during the long breeding season and during subsequent years. Nonbreeding females and juvenile males were given implants containing testosterone (T) or empty (control) implants and observed in a large aviary situated in the middle of Panamanian rainforest. The aviary was planted with saplings around which males display; the bare ground was covered with dried leaves. Control-treated males removed only a few leaves from their courts. T treatment dramatically stimulated court-cleaning behaviour, including both the removal of leaves and attempts to extract small seedlings from the soil. None of the females displayed court-cleaning behaviour, although T-treated females showed low levels of some male courtship displays as well as significant levels of aggressive behaviour. To assess wild adult males' motivation to clear courts, we presented lekking males with weighted artificial leaves. Males were attentive to the leaves and motivated to remove them. With increasing weight, males utilized different methods, which often involved multiple repeated attempts to move leaves. These findings demonstrate that manakins exhibit sex-specific and hormone-dependent court-cleaning behaviours and that males are highly motivated and physically adapted to keep their courts clean.

Central amygdala circuits modulate food consumption through a positive-valence mechanism.

The complex behaviors underlying reward seeking and consumption are integral to organism survival. The hypothalamus and mesolimbic dopamine system are key mediators of these behaviors, yet regulation of appetitive and consummatory behaviors outside of these regions is poorly understood. The central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) has been implicated in feeding and reward, but the neurons and circuit mechanisms that positively regulate these behaviors remain unclear. Here, we defined the neuronal mechanisms by which CeA neurons promote food consumption. Using in vivo activity manipulations and Ca2+ imaging in mice, we found that GABAergic serotonin receptor 2a (Htr2a)-expressing CeA neurons modulate food consumption, promote positive reinforcement and are active in vivo during eating. We demonstrated electrophysiologically, anatomically and behaviorally that intra-CeA and long-range circuit mechanisms underlie these behaviors. Finally, we showed that CeAHtr2a neurons receive inputs from feeding-relevant brain regions. Our results illustrate how defined CeA neural circuits positively regulate food consumption.

Do Food Preferences Change After Bariatric Surgery?

Insights into physiological mechanisms responsible for weight loss after bariatric surgery (BS) have challenged the traditional view that mechanical restriction and caloric malabsorption are major drivers of weight loss and health benefits after BS. Altered diet selection with an increased postoperative preference for low-sugar and low-fat food has also been implicated as a potential mechanism beyond mere reduction of calorie intake. However, the empirical support for this phenomenon is not uniform and evidence is largely based on indirect measurements, such as self-reported food intake data, which are prone to inaccuracy due to their subjective character. Most studies indicate that patients not only reduce their caloric intake after BS, but also show a reduced preference of food with high sugar and high fat content. So far, standard behavioral tests to directly measure changes in food intake behavior after BS have been mainly used in animal models. It remains unclear whether there are fundamental shifts in the palatability of high-fat and sugary foods after BS or simply a decrease in the appetitive drive to ingest them. Studies of appetitive behavior in humans after BS have produced equivocal results. Learning processes may play a role as changes in diet selection seem to progress with time after surgery. So far, direct measures of altered food selection in humans after BS are rare and the durability of altered food selection as well as the role of learning remains elusive.

RFamide-related Peptide-3 and the Trade-off between Reproductive and Ingestive Behavior.

SynopsisIngestive and sex behaviors are important for individual survival and reproductive success, but when environmental energy availability is limited, individuals of many different species make a trade-off, forfeiting sex for ingestive behavior. For example, food-deprived female Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus) forego vaginal scent marking and lordosis (sex behaviors) in favor of foraging, hoarding, and eating food (ingestive behavior). Reproductive processes tend to be energetically costly, and individual survival requires homeostasis in metabolic energy. Thus, during energetic challenges, the chances of survival are enhanced by decreasing the energy expended on reproductive processes. The entire hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) system is inhibited by severe energetic challenges, but comparatively little is known about the effects of mild energetic challenges. We hypothesized that (1) a trade-off is made between sex and ingestive behavior even when the level of food restriction is insufficient to inhibit the HPG system; (2) mild energetic challenges force a trade-off between appetitive ingestive and sex behaviors, but not consummatory versions of the same behaviors; and (3) the trade-off is orchestrated by ovarian steroid modulation of RFamide-related peptide 3 (RFRP-3). In other species, RFRP-3, an ortholog of avian gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone, is implicated in control of behavior in response to energetic challenges and stressful stimuli. In support of our three hypotheses, there is a “dose-response” effect of food restriction and re-feeding on the activation of RFRP-3-immunoreactive cells in the dorsomedial hypothalamus and on appetitive behaviors (food hoarding and sexual motivation), but not on consummatory behaviors (food intake and lordosis), with no significant effect on circulating levels of estradiol or progesterone. The effect of food restriction on the activation of RFRP-3 cells is modulated at the time of estrus in gonadally-intact females and in ovariectomized females treated with progesterone alone or with estradiol plus progesterone. Intracerebral treatment with RFRP-3 results in significant decreases in sexual motivation and results in significant but small increases in food hoarding in hamsters fed ad libitum. These and other results are consistent with the idea that ovarian steroids and RFRP-3 are part of a system that orchestrates trade-offs in appetitive behaviors in environments where energy availability fluctuates.

Feeding Releases Endogenous Opioids in Humans.

The endogenous opioid system supports a multitude of functions related to appetitive behavior in humans and animals, and it has been proposed to govern hedonic aspects of feeding thus contributing to the development of obesity. Here we used positron emission tomography to investigate whether feeding results in hedonia-dependent endogenous opioid release in humans. Ten healthy males were recruited for the study. They were scanned with the μ-opioid-specific ligand [11C]carfentanil three times, as follows: after a palatable meal, a nonpalatable meal, and after an overnight fast. Subjective mood, satiety, and circulating hormone levels were measured. Feeding induced significant endogenous opioid release throughout the brain. This response was more pronounced following a nonpalatable meal versus a palatable meal, and independent of the subjective hedonic responses to feeding. We conclude that feeding consistently triggers cerebral opioid release even in the absence of subjective pleasure associated with feeding, suggesting that metabolic and homeostatic rather than exclusively hedonic responses play a role in the feeding-triggered cerebral opioid release.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The endogenous opioid system supports both hedonic and homeostatic functions. It has been proposed that overeating and concomitant opioid release could downregulate opioid receptors and promote the development of obesity. However, it remains unresolved whether feeding leads to endogenous opioid release in humans. We used in vivo positron emission tomography to test whether feeding triggers cerebral opioid release and whether this response is associated with pleasurable sensations. We scanned volunteers using the μ-opioid receptor-specific radioligand [11C]carfentanil three times, as follows: after an overnight fast, after consuming a palatable meal, and after consuming a nonpalatable meal. Feeding led to significant endogenous opioid release, and this occurred also in the absence of feeding-triggered hedonia. Feeding-triggered opioid release thus also reflects metabolic and homeostatic responses rather than hedonic responses exclusively.

Attention and Motivated Response to Simulated Male Advertisement Call Activates Forebrain Dopaminergic and Social Decision-Making Network Nuclei in Female Midshipman Fish.

Little is known regarding the coordination of audition with decision-making and subsequent motor responses that initiate social behavior including mate localization during courtship. Using the midshipman fish model, we tested the hypothesis that the time spent by females attending and responding to the advertisement call is correlated with the activation of a specific subset of catecholaminergic (CA) and social decision-making network (SDM) nuclei underlying auditory- driven sexual motivation. In addition, we quantified the relationship of neural activation between CA and SDM nuclei in all responders with the goal of providing a map of functional connectivity of the circuitry underlying a motivated state responsive to acoustic cues during mate localization. In order to make a baseline qualitative comparison of this functional brain map to unmotivated females, we made a similar correlative comparison of brain activation in females who were unresponsive to the advertisement call playback. Our results support an important role for dopaminergic neurons in the periventricular posterior tuberculum and ventral thalamus, putative A11 and A13 tetrapod homologues, respectively, as well as the posterior parvocellular preoptic area and dorsomedial telencephalon, (laterobasal amygdala homologue) in auditory attention and appetitive sexual behavior in fishes. These findings may also offer insights into the function of these highly conserved nuclei in the context of auditory-driven reproductive social behavior across vertebrates.

Persistent cognitive and morphological alterations induced by repeated exposure of adolescent rats to the abused inhalant toluene

While thepsychoactive inhalant toluene causes behavioral effects similarto those produced by other drugs of abuse, the persistent behavioral and anatomical abnormalities induced by toluene exposure are not well known. To mimic human “binge-like“ inhalant intoxication, adolescent, male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to toluene vapor (5700ppm) twice daily for five consecutive days. These rats remained in their home cages until adulthood (P60), when they were trained in operant boxes to respond to a palatable food reward and then challenged with several different cognitive tasks. Rats that experienced chronic exposure to toluene plus abstinence (“CTA”) showed enhanced performance in a strategy set-shifting task using a between-session, but not a within-session test design. CTA also blunted operant and classical conditioning without affecting responding during a progressive ratio task. While CTA rats displayed normal latent inhibition, previous exposure to a non-reinforced cue enhanced extinction of classically conditioned approach behavior of these animals compared to air controls. To determine whether CTA alters the structural plasticity of brain areas involved in set-shifting and appetitive behaviors, we quantified basal dendritic spine morphology in DiI-labeled pyramidal neurons in layer 5 of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). There were no changes in dendritic spine density or subtype in the mPFC of CTA rats while NAc spine density was significantly increased due to an enhanced prevalence of long-thin spines. Together, these findings suggest that the persistent effects of CTA on cognition are related to learning and memory consolidation/recall, but not mPFC-dependent behavioral flexibility.

SIFamide Translates Hunger Signals into Appetitive and Feeding Behavior in Drosophila

Animal behavior is, on the one hand, controlled byneuronal circuits that integrate external sensory stimuli and induce appropriate motor responses. On the other hand, stimulus-evoked or internally generated behavior can be influenced by motivational conditions, e.g., the metabolic state. Motivational states are determined by physiological parameters whose homeostatic imbalances are signaled toand processed within the brain, often mediated by modulatory peptides. Here, we investigate the regulation of appetitive and feeding behavior in thefruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. We report that four neurons in the fly brain that release SIFamide are integral elements of a complex neuropeptide network that regulates feeding. We show that SIFamidergic cells integrate feeding stimulating (orexigenic) and feeding suppressant (anorexigenic) signals to appropriately sensitize sensory circuits, promote appetitive behavior, and enhance food intake. Our study advances the cellular dissection of evolutionarily conserved signaling pathways that convert peripheral metabolic signals into feeding-related behavior.

Palatable food self-administration and reinstatement are not affected by dual orexin receptor antagonism

The orexins are widely regarded potential therapeutic targets for a range of disorders of appetitive motivation, including obesity. The motivational activator theory, the first coherent account of the orexin system's role in appetitive motivation, predicts that orexin release motivates appetitive behaviour when the reinforcer is highly salient, available under a high unit-cost or when reward seeking is cue-driven. The present study tested the effect of intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of the highly potent and commercially available dual orexin receptor antagonist, TCS 1102, on self-administration and reinstatement of palatable food seeking in hungry and sated rats. TCS 1102 was also tested on FR1, FR5, FR10 and PR schedules. Orexin neuron activation was measured by c-Fos/orexin-A immunohistochemistry after cue-induced reinstatement, an extinction test, or a home-cage control. No effect of i.c.v. TCS 1102 was observed on self-administration at any fixed or progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement or reinstatement in hungry or sated rats. Although there was robust recruitment of orexin neurons during behavioural testing conditions, there was no specific activation of these neurons during cue-induced reinstatement when compared to extinction testing conditions. These results suggest that orexin antagonism may not be a useful therapeutic target for obesity as it does not appear to regulate food-seeking, and that the conditions determining orexin involvement as a motivational activator may be less clear than currently understood.

Investigation of the toxicological and histopathological effects of hydrogen peroxide bath treatments at different concentrations on Seriola species and the effectiveness of these treatments on Neobenedenia girellae (Monogenea) infestations

Amberjack Seriola dumerili (Carangidae) and yellowtail S. quinqueradiata are important commercial fish species in Japan; however, they are susceptible to skin and gill monogeneans. Recently, a treatment of 75ppm hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for 30min was found to effectively eliminate these monogeneans. However, histological analyses of the host fish subjected to treatments with lower H2O2 concentrations have not been performed to determine the influence of these treatments on fish. Therefore, we investigated the influence of a 100ppm H2O2 treatment at 25°C on the survival, swimming behavior, feeding behavior and the histopathology of S. dumerili and S. quinqueradiata compared with the 300ppm treatment at 25°C, which is the conventional concentration. We then evaluated the susceptibility of both species to infestations of the skin monogenean Neobenedenia girellae after the administration of a 75ppm H2O2 bath treatment relative to the susceptibility after the administration of the conventional procedure (300ppm for 3 or 4min) at 25°C.Both species suffered severe effects when exposed to 300ppm H2O2; however, when exposed to 100ppm H2O2 for 60min, the survival, appetite, and swimming behavior were unaffected. Histopathological changes were not observed during the examination of the skin, gills, and internal organs of the fish in the control group and the group treated with 100ppm H2O2 for 60min, whereas histopathological changes were observed in the skin, gills and liver of the fish treated with 300ppm H2O2 for 60min, and the changes in S. dumerili became more pronounced with increasing exposure time. Furthermore, the fish treated with 75ppm H2O2 baths for 30 or 40min did not show increased N. girellae infestation levels relative to the untreated controls; however, the fish treated with the 300ppm H2O2 baths for 4min showed significantly increased N. girellae infestation levels relative to the untreated controls (P<0.05). These results show that treating fish with 75ppm H2O2 for 30min, which effectively eliminates the monogeneans infecting S. dumerili, would be presumably safe for the use in the higher water temperatures; however, the exposure time at higher H2O2 concentrations, i.e., 300ppm, must be strictly managed. Statement of relevanceTo eliminate B. seriolae and N. girellae, Z. japonica, fish may be fed praziquantel-supplemented feed, submerged in a freshwater bath for 2- to 5- min, or placed in a hydrogen peroxide bath. However, none of these measures simultaneously dislodge B. seriolae, N. girellae, and Z. japonica. Orally administered praziquantel is ineffective against N. girellae infestations in Seriola species, and the freshwater treatment is not effective when the fish are infected with Z. japonica. Additionally, H2O2 treatment at a concentration of 300ppm (conventional concentration in Japan) negatively affects fish health and viability, especially in the summer when water temperatures are higher and the parasite doubling and maturation rates are increase. Thus, any parasite control measure must be performed frequently during the summer. A bath treatment with 75ppm H2O2 for 30min effectively eliminates these parasites and the fish survival, appetite and swimming behavior were unaffected when exposed to 75ppm H2O2 for 6h at 25°C. Therefore, treatment with 75ppm H2O2 for 30min is not expected to adversely affect S. dumerili. However, histological analyses of lower H2O2 concentrations have not been performed to determine the effects on the host fish, and experimental proof of the safety of different concentrations is important for the use of this treatment in aquaculture.

Hippocampal Ghrelin-positive neurons directly project to arcuate hypothalamic and medial amygdaloid nuclei. Could they modulate food-intake?

Feeding is a process controlled by a complex of associations between external and internal stimuli. The processes that involve learning and memory seem to exert a strong control over appetite and food intake, which is modulated by a gastrointestinal hormone, Ghrelin (Ghre). Recent studies claim that Ghre is involved in cognitive and neurobiological mechanisms that underlie the conditioning of eating behaviors. The expression of Ghre increases in anticipation of food intake based on learned behaviors. The hippocampal Ghre-containing neurons neurologically influence the orexigenic hypothalamus and consequently the learned feeding behavior. The CA1 field of Ammon's horn of the hippocampus (H-CA1) constitutes the most important neural substrate to control both appetitive and ingestive behavior. It also innervates amygdala regions that in turn innervate the hypothalamus. A recent study also implies that Ghre effects on cue-potentiated feeding behavior occur, at the least, via indirect action on the amygdala. In the present study, we investigate the neural substrates through which endogenous Ghre communicates conditioned appetite and feeding behavior within the CNS. We show the existence of a neural Ghre dependent pathway whereby peripherally-derived Ghre activates H-CA1 neurons, which in turn activate Ghre-expressing hypothalamic and amygdaloid neurons to stimulate appetite and feeding behavior. To highlight this pathway, we use two fluorescent retrograde tracers (Fluoro Gold and Dil) and immunohistochemical detection of Ghre expression in the hippocampus. Triple fluorescent-labeling has determined the presence of H-CA1 Ghre-containing collateralized neurons that project to the hypothalamus and amygdala monosynaptically. We hypothesize that H-Ghre-containing neurons in H-CA1 modulate food-intake behavior through direct pathways to the arcuate hypothalamic nucleus and medial amygdaloid nucleus.

Galanin-Expressing GABA Neurons in the Lateral Hypothalamus Modulate Food Reward and Noncompulsive Locomotion.

The lateral hypothalamus (LHA) integrates reward and appetitive behavior and is composed of many overlapping neuronal populations. Recent studies associated LHA GABAergic neurons (LHA GABA ), which densely innervate the ventral tegmental area (VTA), with modulation of food reward and consumption; yet, LHA GABA projections to the VTA exclusively modulated food consumption, not reward. We identified a subpopulation of LHA GABA neurons that coexpress the neuropeptide galanin (LHA Gal ). These LHA Gal neurons also modulate food reward, but lack direct VTA innervation. We hypothesized that LHA Gal neurons may represent a subpopulation of LHA GABA neurons that mediates food reward independent of direct VTA innervation. We used chemogenetic activation of LHA Gal or LHA GABA neurons in mice to compare their role in feeding behavior. We further analyzed locomotor behavior to understand how differential VTA connectivity and transmitter release in these LHA neurons influences this behavior. LHA Gal or LHA GABA neuronal activation both increased operant food-seeking behavior, but only activation of LHA GABA neurons increased overall chow consumption. Additionally, LHA Gal or LHA GABA neuronal activation similarly induced locomotor activity, but with striking differences in modality. Activation of LHA GABA neurons induced compulsive-like locomotor behavior; while LHA Gal neurons induced locomotor activity without compulsivity. Thus, LHA Gal neurons define a subpopulation of LHA GABA neurons without direct VTA innervation that mediate noncompulsive food-seeking behavior. We speculate that the striking difference in compulsive-like locomotor behavior is also based on differential VTA innervation. The downstream neural network responsible for this behavior and a potential role for galanin as neuromodulator remains to be identified.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The lateral hypothalamus (LHA) regulates motivated feeding behavior via GABAergic LHA neurons. The molecular identity of LHA GABA neurons is heterogeneous and largely undefined. Here we introduce LHA Gal neurons as a subset of LHA GABA neurons that lack direct innervation of the ventral tegmental area (VTA). LHA Gal neurons are sufficient to drive motivated feeding and locomotor activity similar to LHA GABA neurons, but without inducing compulsive-like behaviors, which we propose to require direct VTA innervation. Our study integrates galanin-expressing LHA neurons into our current understanding of the neuronal circuits and molecular mechanisms of the LHA that contribute to motivated feeding behaviors.

Evaluating measures of exploratory behaviour in sows around farrowing and during lactation—A pilot study

There are very few studies on the need to perform exploratory behaviour of sows around farrowing and during lactation, except for during the nest-building period. Exploratory behaviour in pigs may reflect appetitive foraging motivated by hunger, or appetitive behaviour related to other motivations, such as nest building. However, exploration may also be motivated by curiosity, stimulated by novelty or search for novelty. The aim of this study was to test novel methods of evaluating exploratory motivation in sows around farrowing and during lactation. We used ten second or third parity sows, housed in conventional crates from day 8 before expected farrowing until weaning, on day 28 after farrowing. Motivation to perform exploratory behaviour was evaluated by measuring the use of a manipulable and chewable object (a wooden device, MCO) and responses during a novel object test (NO). In addition, we studied if exploratory motivation is related to the energy status of the sow, measured as sow weight change during lactation, piglet weight gain, and leptin level in saliva. The exploratory motivation of sows appeared to change during the period of study. Although all sows used the MCO, the use was very low throughout the study (below 3g per day on average), and almost non-existent during the first weeks after farrowing. The latency to touch the object in the NO test was correlated between test days before and after farrowing, while the sow showed more interest in the object before than after farrowing. MCO use during the last week of lactation was higher in sows with a lower weight after weaning, suggesting a link between explorative motivation and energy status in the sow. These results indicate a need for further studies on how to best meet the possible exploratory need of sows during their time in the farrowing room.

Collateralization of projections from the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus to the nucleus accumbens, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and central nucleus of the amygdala.

The paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus (PVT) is a midline thalamic nucleus with dense projections to the nucleus accumbens (NAc), dorsolateral region of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTDL) and the lateral/capsular region of the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeL/CeC). Recent experimental evidence indicates that the PVT is involved in both appetitive and aversive behaviors. However, it is unknown if subgroups of neurons in the PVT innervate different subcortical targets or if the same neurons issue collaterals to multiple areas. To address this issue, we injected two different fluorescent retrograde tracers, cholera toxin subunit B conjugated to Alexa Fluor-488 or Alexa Fluor-594, into different pairs of the subcortical targets including different parts of the NAc (shell, core, dorsomedial shell, and ventromedial shell), BSTDL, and amygdala (basolateral amygdala and CeL/CeC). The results indicate a moderate to high level of collateralization of projections from neurons in the PVT to NAc, BSTDL, and CeL/CeC suggesting a potential importance of the PVT in simultaneously coordinating the activity of key regions of the brain involved in mediating emotional and motivational behaviors. We also observed a difference in the subcortical targets innervated by the anterior PVT (aPVT) and posterior PVT (pPVT) showing that more neurons in the aPVT innervate the dorsomedial part of the NAc shell, while more neurons in the pPVT innervate the ventromedial NAc shell, BSTDL, and CeL/CeC. This observation is suggestive of a potential functional difference between the aPVT and pPVT.

ACTIVITY TEST OF ETHANOLIC EXTRACT FROM SEMBUNG’S ROOT (BLUMEA BALSEMIFERA[L/]/DC) ON INCREASING APPETITE OF WISTAR FEMALE MICE

Objectives: Empirically, root of Sembung can be used as an appetite enhancer/booster. Increasing appetite effect could be seen from increasing animal body weight and reducing leftover food every time-observation. The aim of this study was to analysis of ethanolic extract of Sembung’s root on increasing appetite that exposured in Wistar female mice.Methods: This research was laboratory experimental which used 25 female Swiss Wistar. Rats, then, were randomly divided into 5 groups (n=5) , CMC 0.5%, normal control, ethanolic extract from sembung’s rootdose II 600 mg/kg body weight, dose II 1200 mg/kg body weight, dose III 1800 mg/kg body weight). Tests conducted for 14 days with 2 parameters: weight gain and the remaining amount of feed. The second parameter is then calculated AUC of total body weight and food scraps. Data was analyzed using statistical test of one-way ANOVA. Results:The results shown that ethanolic extract of root of Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC could increase that the AUC value of the averagebody weight with average Dose I: 199.51 ± 6.19, Dose II: 198.26±9.35, Dose III: 196.81 ± 7.58, negative control: 187.71 ± 3.79and normal control: 187.64 ± 5.00. While the average AUC value of the remaining amount of food at first dose was 10.94 ± 1.96 showed the lowest value. ANOVA test presented significant value (P &lt;0.05) in reducing amount of leftover food and increasing body weight.Conclusion: Exposuring of ethanolic extract of Sembung’s root Blumeabalsamifera (L.) DC indicated increasing appetite behaviour of female Wistar rats.

Neural Activation to Food Cues and Cognition in Sedentary Obese Endometrial Cancer Survivors Seeking Weight Loss

PURPOSE: Sedentary behavior and obesity increase the risk of endometrial cancer (EC), particularly Type I forms, which are increasing in the U.S. Further, although death rates from most cancers are decreasing, overall mortality rates for EC are increasing; and, obese EC patients have significantly poorer survival rates compared to normal weight EC patients. No prior studies have examined neural activation in response to food cues as well as sedentary behavior and cognition in obese EC survivors. METHODS: Therefore, we evaluated appetitive behavior using a visual food cue functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) task as well as sedentary behavior and cognition using Trails A & B and Symbol Digits Modalities Tests in 42 obese EC survivors seeking weight loss. RESULTS: We found increased activation in response to high-calorie food cues after eating a meal in brain regions associated with food-related reward (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, amygdala; whole brain cluster corrected, p<0.05) in obese EC survivors. In addition, cognitive tests suggest scores in obese EC patients are lower than normative data for similar age and gender. We are currently evaluating correlations between sedentary behavior, cognitive scores and neural signals in differentially activated brain regions. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate cognitive and sedentary behavior correlates of neural activation in response to food cues in obese EC survivors and, these data may also help inform future work in other adult obese populations with and without cancer. This work was supported by NIH NCI R01-CA175100.

Promising technological innovations in cognitive training to treat eating-related behavior

One potential reason for the suboptimal outcomes of treatments targeting appetitive behavior, such as eating and alcohol consumption, is that they do not target the implicit cognitive processes that may be driving these behaviors. Two groups of related neurocognitive processes that are robustly associated with dysregulated eating and drinking are attention bias (AB; selective attention to specific stimuli) and executive function (EF; a set of cognitive control processes such as inhibitory control, working memory, set shifting, that govern goal-directed behaviors). An increasing body of work suggests that EF and AB training programs improve regulation of appetitive behaviors, especially if trainings are frequent and sustained. However, several key challenges, such as adherence to the trainings in the long term, and overall potency of the training, remain. The current manuscript describes five technological innovations that have the potential to address difficulties related to the effectiveness and feasibility of EF and AB trainings: (1) deployment of training in the home, (2) training via smartphone, (3) gamification, (4) virtual reality, and (5) personalization. The drawbacks of these innovations, as well as areas for future research, are also discussed. The above-mentioned innovations are likely to be instrumental in the future empirical work to develop and evaluate effective EF and AB trainings for appetitive behaviors.

Food craving, food choice and consumption: The role of impulsivity and sham-controlled tDCS stimulation of the right dlPFC

BackgroundImpulsivity has been found to be associated with overeating and obesity. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) may enhance inhibitory control while reducing food craving and intake. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether tDCS stimulation modifies food choice, craving and consumption as a function of trait impulsivity. MethodsForty-two predominantly healthy-weight women received active tDCS stimulation to the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and sham stimulation in a within participant design. Trait impulsivity was measured with a short form of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale. Participants completed a computerized food-choice task, during which their mouse movements were traced. Current food craving was measured by a modified version of the Food Cravings Questionnaire-State as well as by desire to eat ratings for food pictures. Food intake was measured in a taste test. ResultsThere were no tDCS effects on any of the dependent variables. Trait impulsivity (and non-planning impulsivity in particular) was positively associated with higher calorie intake in the taste test, irrespective of tDCS stimulation. ConclusionThe current findings question the efficacy of single-session tDCS stimulation of the right dLPFC to reduce food craving, high caloric food choice and calorie intake in non-selected, predominantly healthy weight women. However, they do support the idea that trait impulsivity is related to overeating and, therefore, may be a risk factor for obesity. Future research needs to specify which appetitive behaviors can be modulated by brain stimulation and which populations might profit from it the most.