Appetitive Behavior Research Articles

Incentive motivation in pet dogs \u2013 preference for constant vs varied food rewards

Recently, there has been a move towards positive reinforcement using food rewards in animal training. By definition, rewards function as reinforcers if they increase or maintain the frequency of behaviour that they follow. However, in operant conditioning tasks animals frequently show systematic changes in performance – in particular a reduction in responding over time. One suggested strategy to avoid such performance decrements is to provide a variety of food rewards, rather than the same food reward in all trials. The enhancement of appetitive behaviour and consumption by reward variation is referred to as ‘variety effect’. We investigated whether dogs preferred a variable or a constant food reward in a concurrent two-choice test. Of 16 dogs, six subjects showed a significant preference for the varied food reward and six for the constant food reward, while four dogs exhibited no significant preference for either option. At the group level, there was a significant effect of block: preference for the varied food reward increased across six blocks of ten trials each. Thus, although some individuals may prefer a single, favourite food reward in the short term, introducing variation in reward types may maintain dogs’ motivation in operant tasks over a longer time period.

Sexual Motivation: A Comparative Approach in Vertebrate Species

We review three different components of sexual motivation: appetitive behaviors, sexual incentive motivation, and paced mating in rats, mice and voles. These components occur in semi-natural or natural conditions. We also described behaviors in other species that are indicative of sexual motivation. Sexual motivation is the mechanism responsible for activating, directing, and causing persistence of behaviors directed towards a sexual incentive. Appropriate sexual motivation is crucial for the survival of any species that reproduces sexually, but not for the survival of any individual. We describe the possible role of the social decision-making network in sexual motivation whereby dopamine is involved in wanting sex, opioids are involved in liking sex, and oxytocin is involved in pair bond formation. Brain areas and neuromodulators in the social decision-making network are common across vertebrate lineage. Understanding the variables involved in sexual motivation in different species can lead to a framework of basic mechanisms of sexual motivation, and such a framework could help us understand human sexual motivation.

Influencia de la condición corporal sobre la respuesta reproductiva de machos cabríos tratados con testosterona en el norte de México

The aim of this study was to evaluate the reproductive performance of male goats with a different body condition score (BCS) and treated with testosterone at the end of the low sexual activity period in northern Mexico (26° N). Adult male goats (n=12) with a different BCS were divided into two groups (n=6 each, HBCS: High body condition score; 2.2 ± 0.1 and LBCS: Low body condition score; 1.6 ± 0.1) maintained for nine weeks (February 29 to April 31). Both groups received 25 mg of testosterone, applied intramuscularly every other day for 21 days. BCS (range: 1-4), intensity of sexual odor (range: 0-3), scrotal circumference, blood glucose and seminal quality were recorded weekly. In addition, sexual behavioral tests were conducted in each male, quantifying both appetitive and consummatory sexual behaviors. Increased (P < 0.05) performance was shown by the HBCS group regarding seminal quality, scrotal circumference, and blood glucose. Likewise, the LBCS group showed fewer appetitive behaviors (P < 0.001) than the HBCS group (57.6 vs. 42.3 %), as well as consummatory behaviors (72.2 vs. 27.7 %). In conclusion, an increase in BCS in male goats treated with testosterone improves scrotal circumference, sexual odor, blood glucose, seminal quality and appetitive and consummatory sexual behaviors.

Overexpression of neuronal RNA-binding protein HuD increases reward induced reinstatement of an instrumental response

The neuronal RNA-binding protein HuD is involved in synaptic plasticity and the molecular mechanisms of learning and memory. Previously, we have shown that HuD is upregulated after both spatial and addiction-associated forms of learning, such as conditioned place preference. However, what role HuD plays in non-drug dependent learning and memory is not fully understood. In order to elucidate the role that HuD plays in non-drug appetitive behavior, we assessed mice over-expressing HuD (HuDOE) throughout the forebrain on the acquisition of an instrumental response for a non-sucrose food reward utilizing a touch-screen paradigm. Next, we examined whether HuD level would alter the extinction or reward-induced reinstatement of responding. We found that HuDOE acquired and extinguished the instrumental response at rates similar to control littermates with no significant alterations in secondary measures of motor behavior or motivation. However, HuDOE reinstated their responding for food reward at rates significantly higher than control animals after a brief presentation of reward. These results suggest that HuD positively regulates the reinstatement of natural reward seeking and supports the role of HuD in forms of learning and memory associated with seeking of appetitive rewards.

Evidence for a shared representation of sequential cues that engage sign-tracking

Sign-tracking is a phenomenon whereby cues that predict rewards come to acquire their own motivational value (incentive salience) and attract appetitive behavior. Typically, sign-tracking paradigms have used single auditory, visual, or lever cues presented prior to a reward delivery. Yet, real world examples of events often can be predicted by a sequence of cues. We have shown that animals will sign-track to multiple cues presented in temporal sequence, and with time develop a bias in responding toward a reward distal cue over a reward proximal cue. Further, extinction of responding to the reward proximal cue directly decreases responding to the reward distal cue. One possible explanation of this result is that serial cues become representationally linked with one another. Here we provide further support of this by showing that extinction of responding to a reward distal cue directly reduces responding to a reward proximal cue. We suggest that the incentive salience of one cue can influence the incentive salience of the other cue.

A Protocol for Measuring Cue Reactivity in a Rat Model of Cocaine Use Disorder.

Cocaine use disorder (CUD) follows a trajectory of repetitive self-administration during which previously neutral stimuli gain incentive value. Cue reactivity, the sensitivity to cues previously linked with the drug-taking experience, plays a prominent role in human craving during abstinence. Cue reactivity can be assessed as the attentional orientation toward drug-associated cues that is measurable as appetitive approach behavior in both preclinical and human studies. Herein describes an assessment of cue reactivity in rats trained to self-administer cocaine. Cocaine self-administration is paired with the presentation of discrete cues that act as conditioned reinforcers (i.e., house light, stimulus light, infusion pump sounds). Following a period of abstinence, lever presses in the cocaine self-administration context accompanied by the discrete cues previously paired with cocaine infusion are measured as cue reactivity. This model is useful to explore neurobiological mechanisms underlying cue reactivity processes as well as to assess pharmacotherapies to suppress cue reactivity and therefore, modify relapse vulnerability. Advantages of the model include its translational relevance, and its face and predictive validities.The primary limitation of the model is that the cue reactivity task can only be performed infrequently and must only be used in short duration (e.g., 1 hour), otherwise rats will begin to extinguish the pairing of the discrete cues with the cocaine stimulus. The model is extendable to any positively reinforcing stimulus paired with discrete cues; though particularly applicable to drugs of abuse, this model may hold future applications in fields such as obesity, where palatable food rewards can act as positively reinforcing stimuli.

A Dorsal Hippocampus-Accumbens Circuit Motif to Guide Appetitive Memory in Space

Retrieving and acting upon memories of food-predicting environments are essential for survival. Pyramidal cells (PYRs) in dorsal CA1 hippocampus (dCA1) of the mammalian brain provide mnemonic representations of space. While dCA1 PYRs cannot directly access motor centers, the brain substrates by which these internal representations guide appetitive behavior are unknown. Here, we uncover a circuit motif embedded in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) that enables the behavioral readout of reward-place memories. By monitoring neuronal ensemble activity in mouse dCA1-NAc pathway, combined with cell-type-selective optogenetic manipulations of dCA1-input-defined postsynaptic neurons, we show that PYRs innervate and engage NAc parvalbumin-expressing fast-spiking interneurons (PV+ FSIs) to influence medium spiny neuron (MSN) firing and thus, NAc output. This motif is specialized for memory-guided appetitive behavior, being dispensable for spatial novelty detection and hedonic motivation. Our findings demonstrate that this PYR-PV+ FSI-MSN circuit motif instantiates a limbic-motor interface for hippocampal representations of space to promote behaviorally-effective appetitive memory.

Effects of caloric or non-caloric sweetener long-term consumption on taste preferences and new aversive learning

Food palatability and caloric content are crucial factors in guiding diet choice and amount consumed; as a result, sweet caloric tastes are associated with a positive hedonic value. Recent evidence in rodents indicates that consumption of artificial (non-caloric) sweeteners, in which sweet taste is dissociated from normal caloric consequences, could induce changes in energy and body weight regulation, suggesting that sweeteners not only modify intake and appetitive behavior, but could also change taste-learning processes. Particularly, there are different properties in some artificial sweeteners, like saccharin, that might differ from sugar in the reward responses that, after long-term consumption, could also be associated with the inability to learn new negative consequences related to the same taste. Thus, the main goal of this study was to determine, in adult rats, the effects of long-term consumption (14 days) of sugar or saccharin, on taste preference, on new aversive learning, i.e. latent inhibition (LI) of conditioned taste aversion (CTA), and appetitive taste re-learning after aversive taste associations. The results showed that 14 days’ exposure to sugar, but not to saccharin, induced a significant increment in the LI of CTA and that taste preference is rapidly recovered during the next 3 days (e.g. CTA extinctions), indicating that long-term sugar consumption significantly accelerates aversive memory extinction during appetitive re-learning of a specific sweet taste; furthermore, high familiarization to sugar, but not to saccharin, promotes appetitive learning for the same taste. Overall, the results indicate that long-term consumption of sugar, but not saccharin, produces changes in appetitive re-learning and suggests that long-term sugar consumption could trigger escalating consumption due to the inability to learn new negative consequences associated with the same taste.

Hypocretin/orexin antagonists decrease cocaine self-administration by female rhesus monkeys

BackgroundThe hypocretin/orexin system is involved in regulating arousal, and much recent work demonstrates that decreasing hypocretin receptor-1 (HCRTr1) activity using antagonists decreases appetitive behavior, including stimulant drug self-administration and reinstatement. MethodsThe present study determined the effects of hypocretin-1 and HCRTr1 antagonists on responding reinforced by intravenous (i.v.) cocaine self-administration (0.0125 – 0.05 mg/kg/infusion) in 5 female rhesus monkeys. Responding was examined using 3 schedules of reinforcement: 1) a Fixed interval 1 min, Fixed ratio 10 Chain schedule [FI 1-min (FR10:S)], 2) a Progressive Ratio (PR) schedule, and 3) a cocaine vs. candy. ResultsChoice schedule: the HCRTr1 antagonist SB-334867 (8–24 mg/kg, i.m.) decreased cocaine taking under the Chain schedule and PR schedule in all 5 monkeys and in 4 of the 5 monkeys under the Choice schedule. d- Amphetamine (0.06 – 0.25 mg/kg, i.m.), tested as a control manipulation, decreased cocaine taking in all 5 monkeys under the Chain schedule. The peptide hypocretin-1 (0.072 mg/kg, i.v.) increased cocaine taking in the monkeys with low rates of cocaine taking under the Chain (3/4) and Choice (4/5) schedules. Reinstatement of extinguished cocaine responding following response-independent delivery of a large dose of cocaine (0.3 mg/kg) was attenuated in 3 of the 5 monkeys by the HCRTr1 antagonist SB-334867. ConclusionsThese data expand upon work accomplished in predominantly male rodents suggesting that the hypocretin system modulates the response to appetitive stimuli. A better understanding of this system offers promise as a novel approach in medication development for appetitive disorders.

Columbia university seminar on appetitive behavior: A tribute to the work of Barry Levin

Columbia university seminar on appetitive behavior: A tribute to the work of Barry Levin

Peripherally injected ghrelin and leptin reduce food hoarding and mass gain in the coal tit (Periparus ater).

In birds little is known about the hormonal signals that communicate nutritional state to the brain and regulate appetitive behaviours. In mammals, the peptide hormones ghrelin and leptin elevate and inhibit consumption and food hoarding, respectively. But in birds, administration of both ghrelin and leptin inhibit food consumption. The role of these hormones in the regulation of food hoarding in avian species has not been examined. To investigate this, we injected wild caught coal tits (Periparus ater) with leptin, high-dose ghrelin, low-dose ghrelin and a saline control in the laboratory. We then measured food hoarding and mass gain, as a proxy of food consumption, every 20 min for 2 h post-injection. Both high-dose ghrelin and leptin injections significantly reduced hoarding and mass gain compared with controls. Our results provide the first evidence that hoarding behaviour can be reduced by both leptin and ghrelin in a wild bird. These findings add to evidence that the hormonal control of food consumption and hoarding in avian species differs from that in mammals. Food hoarding and consumptive behaviours consistently show the same response to peripheral signals of nutritional state, suggesting that the hormonal regulation of food hoarding has evolved from the consumption regulatory system.

NELL2 and energy homeostasis

A neuron-enriched secreting protein, NELL2 is a highly conserved molecule between rodents and human. With its several functional motifs, NELL2 has been suggested to play a critical role in embryonic neural development and neuronal protection. However, NELL2 function in adulthood brain has not been clearly understood until recently. To uncover NELL2-associated brain physiology in adulthood, we recently performed an experiment ablating hypothalamic NELL2 production over a short time period in adult rats. We observed that NELL2 signaling in brain is tightly associated with an animal’s appetite behavior and metabolism regulation. NELL2 is expressed in several hypothalamic nuclei, including the paraventricular nucleus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and the arcuate nucleus, all of which are known to be important in whole body energy homeostasis. Hypothalamic NELL2 was upregulated by fasting, and removal of hypothalamic NELL2 resulted in reduction of daily appetite behavior under normal chow conditions and without changes in water intake. Therefore, rats with hypothalamic NELL2 ablation showed an attenuated body weight gain compared to the control. These data clearly suggested that NELL2 plays an orexigenic role in metabolism regulation. However, the brain regions involved in NELL2 activity for the regulation of metabolism are still uncertain. Furthermore, the effect of NELL2-specific receptor, and NELL2-dependent cellular signaling on metabolism regulation have not been delineated. Therefore, future studies aiming to challenge these issues are necessary to clearly understand contribution of NELL2 on energy homeostasis.

Abstract 200: Behavior Modification and Hypothalamic Appetite Regulation in a Stress-less Mouse Model

Obesity is a major crisis in the Appalachian region. Being obese not only increases risk to heart disease and diabetes, but also promotes behavior modifications. Behavior changes such as excess food consumption, stress, depression is very commonly observed among obese individuals. We hypothesized, lower redox stress by modulating appetite regulation will decrease obesity associated behavioral stress. Behavior changes and appetite regulation were determined in C57Bl6 mice (control) and Bob-Cat mice that express high antioxidant catalase in an obese (Ob/Ob) background (stress-less mouse) (n=6-8) fed either normal chow (NC) or high-fat (HF-45% lard-TD06415) diet for eight weeks. Weekly body weights were monitored. Fat mass changes were determined using ECHO-MRI. Comprehensive lab animal monitoring system (CLAMS) was used to determine energy expenditure. Motor and anxiety-like behavior was tested using Open Field (locomotor behavior) and Rota-Rod (motor coordination and strength) testing systems at baseline and 8 weeks. Changes in appetite regulating genes in the hypothalamus were determined using real time PCR. The C57Bl6 mice on the NC stayed longer on the Rota-Rod as the weeks progressed compared to the mice on HF, where the effect was more dependent on the trials (learning) rather on endurance. The Open Field test showed that the C57Bl6 mice on HF diet were more anxious (spent more time in the edges rather than center) compared to the mice on NC. Catalase overexpression lowered levels of anxiety but had less endurance levels in the HF fed mice. CLAMS showed heat production was higher in stress-less mice vs C57Bl6. Catalase overexpression showed an induction in anorexigenic POMC, and decrease in orexigenic Npy vs C57Bl6. Redox regulation in the stress-less mice modulated both hypothalamic appetite regulation and behavior changes associated with obesity. These findings suggest that redox modulation, may be regulating metabolic pathways that lower obesity and improve the overall behavioral and nutritive state.

Assessment of Appetitive Behavior in Honey Bee Dance Followers.

Honey bees transfer different informational components of the discovered feeding source to their nestmates during the waggle dance. To decode the multicomponent information of this complex behavior, dance followers have to attend to the most relevant signal elements while filtering out less relevant ones. To achieve that, dance followers should present improved abilities to acquire information compared with those bees not engaged in this behavior. Through proboscis extension response assays, sensory and cognitive abilities were tested in follower and non-follower bees. Individuals were captured within the hive, immediately after following waggle runs or a bit further from the dancer. Both behavioral categories present low and similar spontaneous odor responses (SORs). However, followers exhibit differences in responsiveness to sucrose and odor discrimination: followers showed increased gustatory responsiveness and, after olfactory differential conditioning, better memory retention than non-followers. Thus, the abilities of the dance followers related to appetitive behavior would allow them to improve the acquisition of the dance surrounding information.

Neural Activity in Ventral Medial Prefrontal Cortex Is Modulated More Before Approach Than Avoidance During Reinforced and Extinction Trial Blocks.

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is thought to provide regulatory control over Pavlovian fear responses and has recently been implicated in appetitive approach behavior, but much less is known about its role in contexts in which appetitive and aversive outcomes can be obtained and avoided, respectively. To address this issue, we recorded from single neurons in vmPFC while male rats performed our combined approach and avoidance task under reinforced and non-reinforced (extinction) conditions. Surprisingly, we found that cues predicting reward modulated cell firing in vmPFC more often and more robustly than cues preceding avoidable shock; in addition, firing of vmPFC neurons was both response (press or no-press) and outcome (reinforced or extinction) selective. These results suggest a complex role for vmPFC in regulating behavior and support its role in appetitive contexts during both reinforced and non-reinforced conditions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Selecting context-appropriate behaviors to gain reward or avoid punishment is critical for survival. Although the role of ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) in mediating fear responses is well established, vmPFC has also been implicated in the regulation of reward-guided approach and extinction. Many studies have used indirect methods and simple behavioral procedures to study vmPFC, which leaves the literature incomplete. We recorded vmFPC neural activity during a complex cue-driven combined approach and avoidance task and during extinction. Surprisingly, we found very little vmPFC modulation to cues predicting avoidable shock, whereas cues predicting reward approach robustly modulated vmPFC firing in a response- and outcome-selective manner. This suggests a more complex role for vmPFC than current theories suggest, specifically regarding context-specific behavioral optimization.

Impaired associative learning after chronic exposure to pesticides in young adult honey bees.

Neonicotinoids are the most widespread insecticides in agriculture, preferred for their low toxicity to mammals and their systemic nature. Nevertheless, there have been increasing concerns regarding their impact on non-target organisms. Glyphosate is also widely used in crops and, therefore, traces of this pesticide are likely to be found together with neonicotinoids. Although glyphosate is considered a herbicide, adverse effects have been found on animal species, including honey bees. Apis mellifera is one of the most important pollinators in agroecosystems and is exposed to both these pesticides. Traces can be found in nectar and pollen of flowers that honey bees visit, but also in honey stores inside the hive. Young workers, which perform in-hive tasks that are crucial for colony maintenance, are potentially exposed to both these contaminated resources. These workers present high plasticity and are susceptible to stimuli that can modulate their behaviour and impact on colony state. Therefore, by performing standardised assays to study sublethal effects of these pesticides, these bees can be used as bioindicators. We studied the effect of chronic joint exposure to field-realistic concentrations of the neonicotinoid imidacloprid and glyphosate on gustatory perception and olfactory learning. Both pesticides reduced sucrose responsiveness and had a negative effect on olfactory learning. Glyphosate also reduced food uptake during rearing. The results indicate differential susceptibility according to honey bee age. The two agrochemicals had adverse effects on different aspects of honey bee appetitive behaviour, which could have repercussions for food distribution, propagation of olfactory information and task coordination within the nest.

Associative mechanisms underlying the function of satiety cues in the control of energy intake and appetitive behavior

While previous research has identified a number of metabolic, neural, and hormonal events that could serve as potential satiety signals, the mechanisms that enable satiety signals to suppress food-seeking and eating behavior remain poorly specified. Here we investigate the idea that the inhibitory power of satiety signals is derived, at least in part, from their ability to signal that foods and food-related stimuli will not be followed by reinforcing postingestive consequences. Viewed in this way, the signaling relationship in which satiety cues are embedded defines what is known in Pavlovian conditioning as a "serial feature negative" (sFN) discrimination problem. In this problem a "negative feature" cue precedes the presentation of a "target" cue on trials without reinforcement. In contrast, the target is reinforced on trials when the negative feature cue is not presented. Satiety cues can be seen as paralleling the function of negative feature cues in that they signal when food-related target cues will be nonreinforced. We conducted two experiments with rats that assessed if satiety signals functioned like negative feature stimuli. Experiment 1 explicitly pretrained satiety cues as negative feature stimuli, irrelevant stimuli, or under conditions where their ability to serve as negative feature stimuli would be attenuated. Control by satiety cues was highly sensitive to these experimental contingencies, with the best performance exhibited by rats given sFN pretraining. This sFN pretraining also transferred to enhance performance during subsequent training on another sFN problem with both external and internal negative feature cues. We also found that discriminative control by satiety cues blocked the development of that control by external cues. Experiment 2 evaluated whether a manipulation known to impair sFN performance with external negative feature cues (i.e., maintenance on a western diet) would also impair sFN performance when satiety cues were trained as negative feature stimuli. The results showed that compared to standard chow, WD intake impaired sFN performance similarly with both types of stimuli. These experiments provide evidence that an associative mechanism, like that underlying sFN performance, is involved with the control of appetitive behavior by satiety cues.

Randomized, dose-ranging safety trial of cannabidiol in Dravet syndrome.

ObjectiveTo evaluate the safety and preliminary pharmacokinetics of a pharmaceutical formulation of purified cannabidiol (CBD) in children with Dravet syndrome.MethodsPatients aged 4–10 years were randomized 4:1 to CBD (5, 10, or 20 mg/kg/d) or placebo taken twice daily. The double-blind trial comprised 4-week baseline, 3-week treatment (including titration), 10-day taper, and 4-week follow-up periods. Completers could continue in an open-label extension. Multiple pharmacokinetic blood samples were taken on the first day of dosing and at end of treatment for measurement of CBD, its metabolites 6-OH-CBD, 7-OH-CBD, and 7-COOH-CBD, and antiepileptic drugs (AEDs; clobazam and metabolite N-desmethylclobazam [N-CLB], valproate, levetiracetam, topiramate, and stiripentol). Safety assessments were clinical laboratory tests, physical examinations, vital signs, ECGs, adverse events (AEs), seizure frequency, and suicidality.ResultsThirty-four patients were randomized (10, 8, and 9 to the 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg/d CBD groups, and 7 to placebo); 32 (94%) completed treatment. Exposure to CBD and its metabolites was dose-proportional (AUC0–t). CBD did not affect concomitant AED levels, apart from an increase in N-CLB (except in patients taking stiripentol). The most common AEs on CBD were pyrexia, somnolence, decreased appetite, sedation, vomiting, ataxia, and abnormal behavior. Six patients taking CBD and valproate developed elevated transaminases; none met criteria for drug-induced liver injury and all recovered. No other clinically relevant safety signals were observed.ConclusionsExposure to CBD and its metabolites increased proportionally with dose. An interaction with N-CLB was observed, likely related to CBD inhibition of cytochrome P450 subtype 2C19. CBD resulted in more AEs than placebo but was generally well-tolerated.Classification of evidenceThis study provides Class I evidence that for children with Dravet syndrome, CBD resulted in more AEs than placebo but was generally well-tolerated.

Does deposit insurance promote moral hazards and adverse selection? Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the likelihood that the presence of the deposit insurance policy encourages risk appetite behavior of banks in Sub-Saharan African (SSA). It argues that financial system stability is not a function of the choice of a deposit insurance scheme, but countries' peculiarities such as quality of institutions and the macroeconomic environment.Design/methodology/approachThe study used the stereotype logit regression model and covers 47 SSA countries. Countries are categorized into two: explicit and implicit DIP scheme.FindingsThe study found that corrupt countries are more likely to adopt the implicit policy, while the explicit policy exposes them to credit risk, insolvency, and negative macroeconomic shocks, a reflection of weak institutions and unhealthy competition.Research limitations/implicationsPaucity of substantial local literature on institutional perspective of deposit insurance (DI) constitutes the major limitation of this study.Practical implicationsThe sub-region, therefore, faces a conundrum - desiring a deposit insurance scheme, but lacking the required institutions to maintain either a publicly owned regulatory system or the ability to transplant the private club model.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the institutional perspective of DI from SSA institutional perspective.

Alcohol devaluation has dissociable effects on distinct components of alcohol behaviour

RationaleSubstance-related behaviour is often viewed as an appetitive behaviour, motivated by the reinforcing effects of the drug. However, there are various indices of substance motivation (e.g. attentional bias, behavioural economic demand, craving) and it is unclear how these are related or whether they play an important role in all types of substance-related behaviour.Objectives(1) To determine the effect of alcohol devaluation on several indices of alcohol motivation and goal-directed and cue-elicited alcohol behaviour. (2) To investigate which components of motivation mediate any effect of devaluation on behaviour.MethodsSixty-two social drinkers gave baseline measures of alcohol craving, behavioural economic demand and choice for alcohol vs. soft drink. Participants tasted alcohol which was either unadulterated (control) or adulterated with a bitter solution (devaluation) before craving and demand were measured again. Alcohol choice was assessed in several phases: extinction (evaluating goal-directed behaviour), in the presence of drink cues (Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT, cue-elicited behaviour)), and reacquisition. Attentional bias (AB) was measured by tracking eye movements towards the drink cues during novel PIT trials where both cues were presented. Finally, consumption was evaluated in a taste test.ResultsAlcohol devaluation reduced alcohol-related demand, AB, alcohol choice in all phases, and consumption. Alcohol cues presented during PIT increased alcohol choice above baseline irrespective of devaluation. AB and demand for alcohol fully mediated the effect of devaluation on alcohol choice during extinction, AB fully mediated the effect on cue-elicited (specific PIT) alcohol choice and alcohol consumption.ConclusionsAlcohol behaviour in social drinkers is largely sensitive to devaluation, i.e. governed by current motivational value of the drug (suggesting goal-directed behaviour). However, a dissociable form of stimulus control can also drive alcohol-seeking independently of drug value (specific PIT). Mediation analyses suggests that AB may play a paradoxical role in both forms of alcohol seeking and consumption.