Appetite Regulation Research Articles

Nesfatin-1: a novel satiety factor and its molecular cloning applications

Given the increasing health challenges posed by conditions like obesity and diabetes, a comprehensive understanding of appetite regulation and metabolic processes is crucial. Nesfatin-1 is a vital satiety factor governing hunger, satiety, and energy balance. Its role in glucose homeostasis, insulin sensitivity is well established, and cloning of this gene has enabled a wide range of applications, ranging from fundamental research elucidating appetite regulation mechanisms to translational studies aiming at innovative therapies for obesity and metabolic disorders. However, the cloning of the gene has led to a number of challenges, such as post-translational modifications and diverse splicing variants. This review aims to identify and characterize these variants to understand their specific functions and regulatory mechanisms and address challenges in nesfatin-1 cloning strategies, focusing on current splicing methods and proposing advanced techniques like single-cell RNA sequencing and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing. Collaborative efforts and technological progress, rooted in a deep nesfatin-1 understanding, are key to enhancing the quality of life for those affected, signaling a significant step towards a healthier future.

Besinlerde melanoidinlerin oluşumu ve sağlık üzerine etkileri

Melanoidins are brown, high molecular weight compounds generated in the late stages of the Maillard reaction from reducing sugars and proteins or amino acids during thermal food processing. The primary source of melanoidin is bread and bakery products in the diet. Although the chemical structures of melanoidins are not precisely known, the daily dietary intake is estimated at approximately 10 g. Melanoidins exist as monosaccharides (coffee, beer, and cocoa) and melanoproteins (bread and bakery products), depending on the food composition they form. The formation of melanoidins in foods depends on conditions such as composition of products, heat treatment time and temperature, pH, water and activity of reactants. Melanoidins have many beneficial effects on health, such as prebiotic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic, antihypertensive, xenobiotic enzyme activity, appetite regulation, and energy intake. In the gastrointestinal tract, melanoidins behave as dietary fibre by promoting the growth of bifidobacteria. In addition, melanoidins can preserve the quality of food by contributing to the texture and flavour of food. This review examines the formation, amount of food, mechanism of action and effects on human health of melanoidins.

Distribution and function of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) in the digestive tract of mammals and the clinical use of its analogues

Recently, interest in glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and other peptides derived from preproglucagon has increased significantly. GLP-1 is a 30-amino acid peptide hormone produced in L-type enteroendocrine cells as a response to food intake. GLP-1 is rapidly metabolized and inactivated by the dipeptidyl peptidase IV enzyme before the hormone leaves the intestine, which increases the likelihood that GLP-1 action is transmitted through sensory neurons in the intestine and liver through the GLP-1 receptor. The main actions of GLP-1 are to stimulate insulin secretion (i.e. act as incretin hormone) and inhibit glucagon secretion, thus contributing to the reduction of postprandial glucose spikes. GLP-1 also inhibits motility and gastrointestinal secretion, and therefore acts as part of the „small bowel brake” mechanism. GLP-1 also appears to be a physiological regulator of appetite and food intake. Because of these effects, GLP-1 or GLP-1 receptor agonists are now increasingly used to treat type 2 diabetes. Reduced GLP-1 secretion may contribute to the development of obesity, and excessive secretion may be responsible for postprandial reactive hypoglycemia. The use of GLP-1 agonists opens up new possibilities for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and other metabolic diseases. In the last two decades, many interesting studies covering both the physiological and pathophysiological role of GLP-1 have been published, and our understanding of GLP-1 has broadened significantly. In this review article, we have tried to describe our current understanding of how GLP-1 works as both a peripheral hormone and as a central neurotransmitter in health and disease. We focused on its biological effects on the body and the potential clinical application in relation to current research.

The impact of leptin on sperm.

Despite its important role in numerous physiological functions, including regulation of appetite and body weight, immune function and normal sexual maturation, raised leptin levels could result in significant damaging effects on sperm. The adverse effects of leptin on the male reproductive system result from its direct actions on the reproductive organs and cells instead of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis. Binding of leptin to the receptors in the seminiferous tubular cells of the testes increases free radical production and decreases the gene expression and activity of endogenous enzymatic antioxidants. These effects are mediated via the PI3K pathway. The resultant oxidative stress causes significant damage to the seminiferous tubular cells, germ cells and sperm DNA leading to apoptosis, increased sperm DNA fragmentation, decreased sperm count, increased fraction of sperm with abnormal morphology, and decreased seminiferous tubular height and diameter. This review summarises the evidence in the literature on the adverse effects of leptin on sperm, which could underlie the often-reported sperm abnormalities in obese hyperleptinaemic infertile males. Although leptin is necessary for normal reproductive function, its raised levels could be pathologic. There is, therefore, a need to identify the cut-off level in the serum and seminal fluid above which leptin becomes pathological for better management of leptin associated adverse effects on male reproductive function.

GLP-1 and GIP receptor agonists: emerging therapies for obesity

Obesity is a chronic and recurrent metabolic disease associated with serious complications and increased mortality. Bariatric surgery was until recently the only intervention that could lead to significant and sustained weight loss. A better understanding of the endocrine regulation of appetite has allowed the development of new treatments. GLP-1 analogues are already available and a dual treatment of GLP-1 analogue and GIP has recently shown even greater efficacy in terms of weight loss. We present a summary of the known mechanisms of action and clinical data that support the use of these molecules in the treatment of obesity.

Central regulation of appetite in birds: Recent advances and future perspective

Understanding the mechanism of food intake is important for comprehending energy balance, obesity, and the body weight regulation. In particular, examining birds' appetite is critical for conservation efforts, managing human-bird interactions, and understanding the environmental implications of bird feeding practices. In this systematic review, using the PRISMA guideline, we investigated the mediators that were identified as factors affecting the birds' appetite in 2022 and 2023. In order to obtain the appropriate studies, suitable keywords were searched in the relevant electronic databases and an anthology of the desired articles was done. According to the findings, the central administration of adrenomedullin, apelin-13, lipopolysaccharide, neuromedins and spexin causes hypophagia in chickens, while the injection of adiponectin, neuropeptide W (NPW) and phonexin-14 increased the food intake of birds. Also, regarding the members of RF-amide peptide family, neuropeptide VF (NPVF) and neuropeptide FF (NPFF) weakened the food consumption of birds, while kisspeptin and prolactin-releasing peptide (PrRP) strengthened it. The effects observed in birds were similar to mammals in most cases, indicating the structural and general similarities in the regulatory mechanisms of these strains, on the other hand, the contradictory effects between the two species were probably caused by genetic differences. Finally, despite the progress made in identifying the factors and mechanisms involved in regulating the appetite of birds, it is recommended to conduct future studies using modern laboratory methods, especially cellular-molecular methods.

Nesfatin-1 in Human Milk and Its Association with Infant Anthropometry.

Breastfed infants have different growth patterns to formula-fed infants and are less likely to develop obesity later in life. Nesfatin-1 is an anorexigenic adipokine that was discovered in human milk more than a decade ago, and its role in infant appetite regulation is not clear. Our aim was to describe nesfatin-1 levels in human milk collected 3-4 months postpartum, associations with infant anthropometry, and factors (maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (mBMI), high weight gain during pregnancy, milk fat, and energy content) possibly influencing nesfatin-1 levels. We hypothesized that nesfatin-1 levels in mother's milk would differ for infants that were large (high weight-for-age Z-score (WAZ)) or small (low WAZ) at the time of milk sample collection. We used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect the nesfatin-1 concentration in milk samples from mothers to high WAZ (n = 50) and low WAZ (n = 50) infants. We investigated associations between nesfatin-1 levels and infant anthropometry at 3-4 months of age and growth since birth, using linear regression adjusted for mBMI, birth weight, infant sex, and exclusivity of breastfeeding. We found no difference in nesfatin-1 levels between the two groups and no association with infant anthropometry, even after adjusting for potential confounders. However, high nesfatin-1 levels were correlated with low mBMI. Future research should investigate serum nesfatin-1 level in both mothers, infants and associations with growth in breastfed children.

Association between eating behavior and the immediate neural activity caused by viewing food images presented in and out of awareness: A magnetoencephalography study.

Obesity is a serious health problem in modern society. Considering the fact that the outcomes of treatments targeting appetitive behavior are suboptimal, one potential reason proposed for these poor outcomes is that appetitive behavior is driven more by unconscious decision-making processes than by the conscious ones targeted by traditional behavioral treatments. In this study, we aimed to investigate both the conscious and unconscious decision-making processes related to eating behavior, and to examine whether an interaction related to eating behavior exists between conscious and unconscious neural processes. The study was conducted on healthy male volunteers who viewed pictures of food and non-food items presented both above and below the awareness threshold. The oscillatory brain activity affected by viewing the pictures was assessed by magnetoencephalography. A visual backward masking procedure was used to present the pictures out of awareness. Neural activity corresponding to the interactions between sessions (i.e., food or non-food) and conditions (i.e., visible or invisible) was observed in left Brodmann's areas 45 and 47 in the high-gamma (60-200 Hz) frequency range. The interactions were associated with eating behavior indices such as emotional eating and cognitive restraint, suggesting that conscious and unconscious neural processes are differently involved in eating behavior. These findings provide valuable clues for devising methods to assess conscious and unconscious appetite regulation in individuals with normal or abnormal eating behavior.

Effects of acute resistance exercise with different loads on appetite, appetite hormones and autonomic nervous system responses in healthy young men

Although the effect of continuous aerobic exercise on the appetite has been widely explored, the influence of resistance exercise (RE) with different variables, including training loads, training volume, and inter-set rest, on appetite responses requires further investigation. This study examined the importance of training load in RE-induced appetite regulation, with the total training volume and inter-set rest equalized. In total, 11 healthy young men (age = 23 ± 2 years, body mass index = 22 ± 2 kg/m2) were included. Participants completed 3 trials, namely moderate-load RE (MOD; 4 sets of 8 repetitions at 85% 8RM), low-load RE (LOW; 4 sets of 15 repetitions at 45% 8RM), and a control (CON; no exercise), in a randomized, crossover design. Subjective appetite ratings; concentrations of ghrelin, peptide YY (PYY), and lactate; and the autonomic nervous system activity were evaluated before exercise and 1 h after exercise. The hunger and predicted food consumption ratings, and ghrelin concentrations immediately after exercise were significantly lower in the MOD and LOW trials (p < 0.05 vs. CON). The PYY and lactate concentrations immediately after exercise were significantly higher in the MOD and LOW trials (p < 0.05 vs. CON). Heart rate variability recovery was slower in the MOD trial. These findings suggest that both moderate-load and low-load RE at equal training volumes and inter-set rest induce similar responses on hunger suppression and orexigenic signals, except for the slower recovery of autonomic modulation after moderate-load RE. Our results suggest that when individuals aim to potentiate appetite suppression after a bout of RE, both moderate- and low-load RE could be applied.

Changes in Serum Oxytocin Levels under Physiological and Supraphysiological Gonadal Steroid Hormone Conditions in Women of Reproductive Age: A Preliminary Study.

Oxytocin (OT) affects many behavioral, psychological, and physiological functions, including appetite and body weight regulation. Central and peripheral OT levels are markedly affected by gonadal steroids, especially estrogen, and the anorectic effects of estrogen are partially mediated by OT in rodents. In this study, the relationship between the estrogen milieu and serum OT levels was evaluated in women of reproductive age under physiological (n = 9) and supraphysiological estrogenic conditions (n = 7). Consequently, it was found that serum OT levels were increased in physiological (the ovulatory phase) and supraphysiological (on the day of the human chorionic gonadotropin trigger in an ovarian stimulation cycle) estrogenic conditions, and that serum OT levels were positively correlated with serum estradiol levels. On the other hand, serum OT levels were negatively correlated with serum progesterone levels, and there was no correlation between serum and follicular OT levels. These results suggest that OT levels may be positively and negatively regulated by estrogen and progesterone, respectively, in humans. However, the physiological roles of these actions of gonadal steroids on OT remain unclear.

Therapeutic Effects of Cannabinoids and Their Applications in COVID-19 Treatment.

Cannabis sativa is one of the first medicinal plants used by humans. Its medical use remains controversial because it is a psychotropic drug whose use has been banned. Recently, however, some countries have approved its use, including for recreational and medical purposes, and have allowed the scientific study of its compounds. Cannabis is characterized by the production of special types of natural products called phytocannabinoids that are synthesized exclusively by this genus. Phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids are chemically different, but both pharmacologically modulate CB1, CB2, GRP55, GRP119 and TRPV1 receptor activities, involving activities such as memory, sleep, mood, appetite and motor regulation, pain sensation, neuroinflammation, neurogenesis and apoptosis. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are phytocannabinoids with greater pharmacological potential, including anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and anticonvulsant activities. Cannabidiol is showing promising results for the treatment of COVID-19, due to its capability of acting on the unleashed cytokine storm, on the proteins necessary for both virus entry and replication and on the neurological consequences of patients who have been infected by the virus. Here, we summarize the latest knowledge regarding the advantages of using cannabinoids in the treatment of COVID-19.

Optimizing the Nutritional Status of Elementary School-Age Children Through Family Counseling About Children's Sleep Quality: a Literature Review

Sleep quality can be interpreted as a person's satisfaction in his sleep, good sleep quality can make the person feel fresh and fit when he wakes up. Sleep disorders in elementary school children aged 7-11 years in Indonesia as much as 65.3% in 2020. Long term, lack of sleep can cause obesity, depression, and fatigue. Imbalanced nutrition and poor sleep quality lead to inhibition of appetite regulation. Parents have an important role in setting a child's sleep schedule, behavior, and activities. The research design this study was a traditional literature review. The selection of articles in this study used PRISMA Flowchart. Articles searched using search engines (SpringerLink, ScienceDirect, Pubmed, and Google Scholar). Family counseling about the quality of children's sleep can affect the fulfillment of nutritional status. Children's nutritional status is influenced by several factors, such as children's sleep quality, children's physical activity, and children's eating patterns. These three elements must be met so that the nutritional status of children does not decrease and children become overweight or obese. Counseling that can be done is like a "healthy family routine" where it contains the child's sleep hours according to the child's age, the benefits of sleep for children, and parents recognize sleep problems in children, such as external factors (crowd, bed comfort, and noise pollution).

Effect of high-fructose corn syrup on some obesity markers in adult male rats

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) accounts for as much as 40% of sweeteners used over all the world as an industrial sweetener - a substitute for sugar. As obesity has increase rapidly to epidemic proportions around the world, adipose derived hormone play central role in regulation of appetite , balancing between calorie input and calorie expenditure , so the current experiment conducted to investigate the effect of HFCS on serum adiponectin , leptin , resistin hormone levels, lipid profile , body weights , food intake , and relative abdominal fat as obesity markers in adult male rats . Thirty adult male rats weighing 200 -225 gram and 12 – 15 weeks old were randomly divided in to five equal groups. The first group (Groups A) was given a 10% solution of HFCS, the second group (Groups B) was given a 20% solution of HFCS ,the third group ( group C ) was given a 10% solution of sucrose , the fourth group ( group D ) was given a 20% solution of sucrose , the fifth group ( group E ) was given a distilled water for thirty days . All groups were fed with standard rat diet and their solutions ad libitum. At the end of experiment the animals were weighted, sacrificed, blood samples were collected by heart puncture . There were a significant increase (p ≤ 0.05 ) in body weights , relative abdominal fat , serum TC , TAG , LDL-c , and VLDL-c , leptin hormone , and resistin hormone in group B compared with all groups of experiment . There were a significant increase in body weights , relative abdominal fat , serum TC , TAG , LDL-c , and VLDL-c , leptin hormone , and resistin hormone in groups A , C and D compared with group E ,whereas there were no significant differences between group A and groups C, D in all studied parameters when compared with each other’s. Serum HDL-c and adiponectin hormone decreased in groups A, B, C, D when compared with group E. There were no significant differences in HDL-c and adiponectin hormone in groups A, B, C, and D when compared with each other’s. In Conclusions excessive consumption of HFCS may contribute to the incidence obesity and dyslipidemia.

Changes in body mass, appetite-related hormones, and appetite sensation in women during 4 days of hypobaric hypoxic exposure equivalent to 3,500-m altitude.

Altitude exposure may suppress appetite and hence provide a viable weight-loss strategy. While changes in food intake and availability as well as physical activity may contribute to altered appetite at altitude, herein we aimed to investigate the isolated effects of hypobaric hypoxia on appetite regulation and sensation. Twelve healthy women (age: 24.0 ± 4.2 years, body mass: 60.6 ± 7.0 kg) completed two 4-day sojourns in a hypobaric chamber, one in normoxia [PB = 761 mmHg, 262 m (NX)] and one in hypobaric hypoxia [PB = 493 mmHg (HH)] equivalent to 3,500-m altitude. Energy intake was standardized 4 days prior and throughout both sojourns. Plasma concentrations of leptin, acylated ghrelin, cholecystokinin (CCK), and cytokine growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) were determined every morning. Before and after breakfast, lunch, and dinner, appetite was assessed using visual analog scales. Body mass was significantly decreased following HH but not NX (-0.71 ± 0.32 kg vs. -0.05 ± 0.54 kg, condition: P < 0.001). Compared to NX, acylated ghrelin decreased throughout the HH sojourn (condition × time: P = 0.020), while leptin was higher throughout the entire HH sojourn (condition: P < 0.001). No differences were observed in CCK and GDF15 between the sojourns. Feelings of satiety and fullness were higher (condition: P < 0.001 and P = 0.013, respectively), whereas prospective food consumption was lower in HH than in NX (condition: P < 0.001). Our findings suggest that hypoxia exerts an anorexigenic effect on appetite-regulating hormones, suppresses subjective appetite sensation, and can induce weight loss in young healthy women. Among the investigated hormones, acylated ghrelin and leptin most likely explain the observed HH-induced appetite suppression.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study investigated the effects of hypoxia on appetite regulation in women while strictly controlling for diet, physical activity, menstrual cycle, and environmental conditions. In young women, 4 days of altitude exposure (3,500 m) decreases body weight and circulating acylated ghrelin levels while preserving leptin concentrations. In line with the hormonal changes, altitude exposure induces alterations in appetite sensation, consisting of a decreased feeling of hunger and prospective food intake and an increased feeling of fullness and satiety.

The oxytocin receptor represents a key hub in the GPCR heteroreceptor network: potential relevance for brain and behavior.

In the last 10 years, it has become increasingly clear that large numbers of axon collaterals extend from the oxytocin (OXT) hypothalamic axons, especially the parvocellular components, to other brain regions. Consequently, the OXT signaling system forms, like other monoamine axons, a rich functional network across several brain regions. In this manuscript, we review the recently indicated higher order G-protein coupled heteroreceptor complexes of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR), and how these, via allosteric receptor-receptor interactions modulate the recognition, signaling, and trafficking of the participating receptor protomers and their potential impact for brain and behavior. The major focus will be on complexes of the OXTR protomer with the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) protomer and the serotonin 2A (5-HT2AR) and 2C (5-HT2CR) receptor protomers. Specifically, the existence of D2R-OXTR heterocomplexes in the nucleus accumbens and the caudate putamen of rats has led to a postulated function for this heteromer in social behavior. Next, a physical interaction between OXTRs and the growth hormone secretagogue or ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) was demonstrated, which consequently was able to attenuate OXTR-mediated Gαq signaling. This highlights the potential of ghrelin-targeted therapies to modulate oxytocinergic signaling with relevance for appetite regulation, anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia. Similarly, evidence for 5-HT2AR-OXTR heteromerization in the pyramidal cell layer of CA2 and CA3 in the dorsal hippocampus and in the nucleus accumbens shell was demonstrated. This complex may offer new strategies for the treatment of both mental disease and social behavior. Finally, the 5-HT2CR-OXTR heterocomplexes were demonstrated in the CA1, CA2, and CA3 regions of the dorsal hippocampus. Future work should be done to investigate the precise functional consequence of region-specific OXTR heteromerization in the brain, as well across the periphery, and whether the integration of neuronal signals in the brain may also involve higher order OXTR-GHS-R1a heteroreceptor complexes including the dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA) or serotonin (5-HT) receptor protomers or other types of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs).

Sleep Deprivation and Central Appetite Regulation.

Research shows that reduced sleep duration is related to an increased risk of obesity. The relationship between sleep deprivation and obesity, type 2 diabetes, and other chronic diseases may be related to the imbalance of appetite regulation. To comprehensively illustrate the specific relationship between sleep deprivation and appetite regulation, this review introduces the pathophysiology of sleep deprivation, the research cutting edge of animal models, and the central regulatory mechanism of appetite under sleep deprivation. This paper summarizes the changes in appetite-related hormones orexin, ghrelin, leptin, and insulin secretion caused by long-term sleep deprivation based on the epidemiology data and animal studies that have established sleep deprivation models. Moreover, this review analyzes the potential mechanism of associations between appetite regulation and sleep deprivation, providing more clues on further studies and new strategies to access obesity and metabolic disease.

Brain Related Gut Peptides - A Review.

Gut peptides are small peptides secreted by gut endocrine cells that can modulate the roles and functions of different organs through signaling. Gut peptides can also majorly impact the body's energy homeostasis by regulating appetite and energy metabolism. The gut-brain axis (GBA) is bidirectional communication between the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral enteric nervous system. The regulation of appetite acts by hypothalamic neuronal activity. The complex interaction of hedonic and homeostatic factors implicates appetite regulation. In the CNS, the hypothalamus and brainstem have a dominating role in appetite regulation. The arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus plays a vital role in energy homeostasis, while other nuclei also play a role in appetite regulation. The gut conveys peripheral information about energy balance to the brain via gut peptides and receptors for the digestion of food. The varied gut peptides have different actions on appetite regulation.

Anorexia of Aging: Metabolic Changes and Biomarker Discovery.

The age-associated decrease in appetite and food intake is referred to as "anorexia of aging". Older adults with anorexia show changes in the quantity/quality of energy supplied to the organism which eventually may cause a mismatch between ingested calories and physiological energy demands. Therefore, a state of malnutrition and impaired metabolism may ensue which renders older people more vulnerable to stressors and more prone to incur negative health outcomes. These latter cover a wide range of conditions including sarcopenia, low engagement in physical activity, and more severe consequences such as disability, loss of independence, hospitalization, nursing home placement, and mortality. Malnutrition has been recognized by the European Society of Clinical Nutrition (ESPEN) among the chief risk factors for the development of frailty. Frailty refers to a state of increased vulnerability to stressors stemming from reduced physiologic reserve, and according to ESPEN, is also nutrition-based. Alike frailty, anorexia is highly prevalent among older adults, and its multifactorial nature includes metabolic changes that develop in older age and possibly underly the condition. Circulating factors, including hormones (eg, cholecystokinin, ghrelin, leptin, and inflammatory and microbial mediators of gut dysbiosis), have been proposed as biomarkers for this condition to support early identification and develop personalized nutritional interventions. Additional studies are needed to untangle the interrelationship between gut microbiota and appetite regulation in older adults operating through brain-gut crosstalk. Furthermore, the contribution of the genetic background to appetite regulation and specific nutritional needs warrants investigation. Here, we provide an overview on anorexia of aging in the context of age-related metabolic changes. A special focus is placed on candidate biomarkers that may be used to assist in the early identification of anorexia of aging and in the development of personalized nutritional counseling.

Human loss-of-function variants in the serotonin 2C receptor associated with obesity and maladaptive behavior

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors and receptor agonists are used to treat obesity, anxiety and depression. Here we studied the role of the serotonin 2C receptor (5-HT2CR) in weight regulation and behavior. Using exome sequencing of 2,548 people with severe obesity and 1,117 control individuals without obesity, we identified 13 rare variants in the gene encoding 5-HT2CR (HTR2C) in 19 unrelated people (3 males and 16 females). Eleven variants caused a loss of function in HEK293 cells. All people who carried variants had hyperphagia and some degree of maladaptive behavior. Knock-in male mice harboring a human loss-of-function HTR2C variant developed obesity and reduced social exploratory behavior; female mice heterozygous for the same variant showed similar deficits with reduced severity. Using the 5-HT2CR agonist lorcaserin, we found that depolarization of appetite-suppressing proopiomelanocortin neurons was impaired in knock-in mice. In conclusion, we demonstrate that 5-HT2CR is involved in the regulation of human appetite, weight and behavior. Our findings suggest that melanocortin receptor agonists might be effective in treating severe obesity in individuals carrying HTR2C variants. We suggest that HTR2C should be included in diagnostic gene panels for severe childhood-onset obesity.

The Impact of Ballet Program on Appetite Related Hormones, Insulin Resistance, and Body Composition in Postmenopausal Women: A Pilot Study

PURPOSE: Postmenopausal status is associated with an age-related decline in hormones, abnormal appetite regulation, weight gain, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Exercise is a useful non-pharmacological intervention that improves the levels of hormones involved in appetite regulation and weight management while reducing CVD risk factors. The present study aimed to elucidate the effect of a ballet program on menopause-related changes in satiety or levels of appetite regulation hormones, including leptin and ghrelin, homeostatic model of assessing insulin resistance (HOMA-IR).METHODS: The EX group performed the ballet program. In the fasting state, body composition; leptin, ghrelin, insulin, and glucose levels; and HOMA-IR values were assessed before and 12 week after the intervention.RESULTS: A significant group by time interaction (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt;&lt;.05) was noted for percentage body fat, leptin, insulin, and HOMA-IR, which significantly decreased (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt;&lt;.05), and ghrelin, which significantly increased (&lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt;&lt;.05).CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that this ballet program may be an attractive and enjoyable intervention for improving menopause-associated appetite regulation hormone changes in postmenopausal women.