Appetite Questionnaires Research Articles

Validation of a Smartphone Application for Monitoring Circadian Appetite: A Randomized Crossover Trial in Free-Living and Controlled Settings

Background/Objectives: Appetite is affected by the circadian clock and exhibits diurnal variations. Nevertheless, accurately measuring subjective appetite throughout the day in a free-living setting poses a challenge. This study presents the validation of a novel smartphone application designed to capture, process and analyze circadian appetite fluctuations in a free-living setting. Methods: Twenty-four healthy participants (ages 38.34 ± 3.2 years) completed this randomized crossover study. Participants completed subjective appetite questionnaires every 30 min in a free-living environment, starting from waking hours until bedtime, using visual analog scale (VAS) via the pen and paper (PP) method and the new smartphone application (App). In addition, on two experimental days, separated by a week of washout, participants were provided either a high-energy breakfast (850 kcal) or a low-energy breakfast (250 kcal). Participants completed the appetite questionnaires using both methods every 30 min for 4 h, followed by an ad libitum lunch. Results: The high-energy breakfast led to significantly increased fullness sensation and decreased hunger, desire to eat, prospective consumption, and appetite score compared with the low-energy breakfast. There was no significant difference between the methods (PP and App) in all measured parameters under both the free-living environment and the controlled environment. Additionally, Bland–Altman analysis revealed a high degree of agreement between the PP and App methods. Moreover, most participants rated the App as the preferred method regardless of age. Conclusions: Our findings show that the new smartphone application is a valid, reliable tool for measuring subjective appetite, suitable for use in chrononutritional studies conducted in a free-living environment and controlled settings.

A Diet Containing Animal Source Protein as Fresh, Lean Beef Is More Well Liked and Promotes Healthier Eating Behavior Compared with Plant-Based Alternatives in Women with Overweight

BackgroundDespite limited evidence from intervention trials, replacing animal-source protein-rich foods with plant alternatives continues to be recommended as part of a healthy dietary pattern. ObjectivesThe objective of this study was to examine whether a diet containing fresh, lean beef elicits greater satiety, reduces ad libitum food intake, and is more acceptable compared with a diet containing plant alternatives in women with overweight. MethodsSeventeen women with overweight (mean ± SEM, age: 33 ± 1 y; BMI: 27.8 ± 0.1 kg/m2) completed an acute, tightly controlled, crossover design study. Participants were provided with eucaloric, isonitrogenous diets (15% of daily intake as protein) containing either 2 servings/d of fresh lean beef (BEEF) or plant equivalents (PLANT) for 7 d/pattern. During day 6 of each pattern, the participants completed a 10-h controlled-feeding, clinical testing day, which included repeated appetite and satiety questionnaires and blood sampling to assess pre- and postprandial plasma peptide YY (PYY) and GLP-1 across the day. On day 7, the participants completed a free-living testing day in which they consumed their respective protein foods and were provided with additional carbohydrate- and fat-rich foods to consume, ad libitum, during each eating occasion. Energy and macronutrient composition were assessed. A 2- to 3-wk washout period occurred between patterns. ResultsNo differences in daily satiety were detected between patterns. During the ad libitum testing day, 24-h food intake was not different between patterns (BEEF: 2714 ± 219 compared with PLANT: 2859 ± 147 kcals/d), BEEF led to fewer carbohydrates consumed compared with PLANT (338 ± 34 compared with 370 ± 22 g/d, P < 0.05), especially as sugar (169 ± 73 g compared with 186 ± 57 g, P = 0.05). Furthermore, BEEF was more well liked (i.e., higher flavor, texture, and acceptability) compared with PLANT (all, P < 0.05). ConclusionsAlthough satiety was similar between patterns, the consumption of animal-source protein-rich foods, such as fresh and lean beef, was more well liked and resulted in voluntary reductions in total carbohydrate and sugar intake in middle-aged women with overweight during a single ad libitum testing day.This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02614729.

Validity and Reliability of the Persian Version of the Council on Nutrition Appetite Questionnaire and Its Simplified Version in Iranian Community-Dwelling Older Adults

Background: It is important to use a valid and reliable tool to measure appetite in practice and clinical research. This study aims to evaluate the characteristics, reliability, and validity of the Persian version of the Council on Nutrition Appetite Questionnaire (CNAQ) and Simplified Nutritional Appetite Questionnaire (SNAQ). Methods: After assessing the content validity of CNAQ and SNAQ questionnaires by both a group of experts and participants, the reliability and validity of the Persian version of these questionnaires among 250 community-dwelling elderlies (≥ 65 years, non-hospitalized in nursing homes or hospitals) were assessed. Pearson’s correlation coefficient between the appetite questionnaires and Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA), weight, and body mass index (BMI) were evaluated. In addition, the internal reliability of the SNAQ and CNAQ was evaluated by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Factor analysis was also performed. Results: According to CNAQ, 142 (56.8%) participants and according to SNAQ, 124 (49.6%) participants had poor appetite (P = 0.0001). Both CNAQ and SNAQ were significantly associated with the MNA score (r = 0.57 and 0.64, respectively, P = 0.001). Appetite also had a significant, but moderate correlation with weight (r = 0.38 and 0.31 for CNAQ and SNAQ, respectively) and BMI (r = 0.39 and 0.36 for CNAQ and SNAQ, respectively), and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.74 for CNAQ and 0.70 for SNAQ. The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrated that the CNAQ and SNAQ were both constructed of one factor (appetite). Conclusions: The Iranian version of CNAQ and SNAQ are both simple and applicable tools to assess the appetite of Iranian community-dwelling older adults.

The Effects of Adding Gellan Gum to White Rice on the Glycemic, Gastrointestinal and Appetitive Responses: A Randomised, Controlled, Crossover Study

Abstract Objectives Starchy foods are main sources of carbohydrates, and their digestibility affects the postprandial metabolic responses, which in the long term may be associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes. Addition of food hydrocolloids such as gellan gum (GG) to jasmine rice reduced its starch digestibility in-vitro. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of adding GG to jasmine rice on postprandial glycemic, gastrointestinal and appetitive responses in humans. Methods 12 healthy adults participated in a randomised, controlled, crossover study. They consumed an isoenergetic meal of jasmine rice cooked with and without 3%(weight over dry rice weight) gellan gum. Blood glucose level was measured using finger prick method. Stomach volume using (MRI) and appetite questionnaires were collected at fasting baseline and postprandially for 120 min. Results Blood glucose incremental area under the curve (iAUC) was significantly lower for gellan gum, being 160 ± 19 mmol/L.min for control rice and 92 ± 19 mmol/L.min for the rice with gellan gum, P &amp;lt; 0.001. the AUC for stomach meal volumes with time were moderately lower for gellan gum 30,194 ± 1077ml.min compared to control rice 32,340 ± 1831 ml.min, with the differences being not statistically significant (P = 0.3959). The AUC for composite appetite scores for gellan gun (5729 ± 493 mm.min) was lower compared to rice control (6076 ± 584mm.min), with the difference being not statistically significant (P = 0.2666) Conclusions The addition of gellan gum to jasmine rice during cooking was effective in reducing glycemic responses. This is a simple and inexpensive modification of rice cooking process. If confirmed it could provide an effective intervention to help reducing glycemic responses following white rice consumption in humans. Funding Sources This research was funded by Saudi Ministry of Education and by the NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre.

The Effect of Soluble Fiber Dextrin on Subjective and Physiological Markers of Appetite: A Randomized Trial.

Obesity is a leading public health problem throughout the world. The development of foods that increase satiety and reduce food may aid weight management. This study determined the effect of consuming soluble fiber dextrin (SFD) on appetite, appetitive hormones, breath hydrogen and food intake in adults. Forty-three participants completed this study. For each treatment, 50% of the SFD was provided in liquid form as part of breakfast and 50% in solid form as a morning snack. Appetite questionnaires, blood and breath samples were collected immediately before breakfast and at regular intervals during the test session. The participants consumed an ad libitum lunch meal, afternoon snack and dinner meal, and the amount eaten was recorded. Following dinner, participants left the laboratory but were required to keep a diet diary for the remainder of the day. Breath hydrogen concentration was significantly higher following the consumption of SFD compared to control (p < 0.05). There was no observed overall treatment effect of consuming SFD on GLP-1 (Glucagon-Like-Peptide-1), ghrelin, CCK-8 (Cholecystokinin) or PYY3-36 (Petptide YY) (p > 0.05). Moreover, consuming foods containing SFD had no effect on subjective appetite or food intake (p > 0.05). Consuming foods containing SFD increased breath hydrogen but did not influence food intake, appetite or appetitive hormones. However, the limitations of this study may have individually or collectively masked an effect of SFD on food intake and appetite.

An Afternoon Hummus Snack Affects Diet Quality, Appetite, and Glycemic Control in Healthy Adults

ABSTRACTBackgroundSnacking continues to be a major component in the dietary patterns of most Americans despite conflicting evidence surrounding snacking healthfulness. Low-sugar, highly nutritive snacks, such as hummus, can lead to improvements in diet quality, appetite, and glycemic control.ObjectivesThe purpose of the study was to examine the effects of afternoon snacking on diet quality, appetite, and glycemic control in healthy adults.MethodsThirty-nine adults (age: 26 ± 1 y; BMI: 24.4 ± 0.5 kg/m2) randomly completed the following afternoon snack patterns for 6 d/pattern: hummus and pretzels [HUMMUS; 240 kcal; 6 g protein, 31 g carbohydrate (2 g sugar), 11 g fat]; granola bars [BARS; 240 kcal; 4 g protein, 38 g carbohydrate (16 g sugar), 9 g fat]; or no snacking (NO SNACK). On day 7 of each pattern, a standardized breakfast and lunch were provided. The respective snack was provided to participants 3 h after lunch, and appetite, satiety, and mood questionnaires were completed throughout the afternoon. At 3 h postsnack, a standardized dinner was consumed, and an evening snack cooler was provided to be consumed, ad libitum at home, throughout the evening. Lastly, 24 h continuous glucose monitoring was performed.ResultsHUMMUS reduced subsequent snacking on desserts by ∼20% compared with NO SNACK (P = 0.001) and BARS (P < 0.001). HUMMUS led to greater dietary compensation compared with BARS (122 ± 31% compared with 72 ± 32%, respectively; P < 0.05). HUMMUS reduced indices of appetite (i.e., hunger, desire to eat, and prospective food consumption) by ∼70% compared with NO SNACK (all P < 0.05), whereas BARS did not. Additionally, satiety was ∼30% greater following HUMMUS and BARS compared with NO SNACK (both P < 0.005) with no differences between snacks. Lastly, HUMMUS reduced afternoon blood glucose concentrations by ∼5% compared with BARS (P < 0.05).ConclusionsAcute consumption of a low-sugar, afternoon hummus snack improved diet quality and selected indices of appetite, satiety, and glycemic control in healthy adults. Long-term trials assessing the effects of hummus snacking on health outcomes are warranted.

Acute Effects of an Afternoon Hummus-containing Snack on Appetite, Mood, and Food Intake in Healthy Adults (P08-009-19)

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to determine whether the consumption of afternoon snacks containing lower-sugar hummus/pretzels vs. higher-sugar granola bars improve appetite, mood, and eating behavior throughout the day compared to no afternoon snacking in healthy adults. MethodsThirty-two adults (age: 24.3 ± 0.9 y; BMI: 24.2 ± 0.6 kg/m2) randomly completed the following afternoon snack patterns for 6 days/pattern: consumption of hummus & pretzels (HUMMUS; 240 kcals; 6 g PRO/31 g CHO(2 g sugar)/11 g FAT); consumption of granola bars (BARS; 240 kcals; 4 g PRO/38 g CHO(16 g sugar)/9 g FAT); or no afternoon snacking (NO SNACK). On day 7 of each pattern, a standardized breakfast was provided at home and the participants arrived at the testing facility to consume a standardized lunch. The respective snack was provided to participants three hours after lunch. Appetite, mood, and satiety questionnaires were completed throughout the afternoon. Three hours after the snack, a standardized dinner was consumed, and an evening snack packout was provided, ad libitum at home, throughout the remainder of the day. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) was also completed from days 3–8 of each snack pattern. ResultsThe HUMMUS snack led to lower hunger, desire to eat, and prospective food consumption throughout the afternoon vs. NO SNACK (all, P < 0.01), whereas the BARS did not. When directly comparing the snacks, HUMMUS tended to elicit lower hunger (P = 0.06) and desire to eat (P = 0.09) vs. BARS (all, P < 0.100). Fullness was not different between patterns. The HUMMUS snack also led to smaller reductions in afternoon alertness vs. NO SNACK (P < 0.01) and vs. BARS (P = 0.05); no difference in alertness was detected when comparing BARS vs. NO SNACK. Afternoon snacking delayed subsequent eating initiation by + 80 min compared to NO SNACK (both, P < 0.05) with no differences between snacks. Although afternoon snacking on either HUMMUS or BARS reduced subsequent (evening) snack intake vs. NO SNACK (both, P < 0.01), daily energy intake was not different. CGM analyses are on-going. ConclusionsThe acute consumption of an afternoon snack, particularly containing lower-sugar hummus, improved select indices of appetite and mood but had minimal effects on daily food intake in healthy adults. Long-term trials assessing the effects of lower-sugar snacks on health outcomes are warranted. Funding SourcesSabra Dipping Company.

Habitual Breakfast Patterns Do Not Influence Appetite and Satiety Responses in Normal vs. High-Protein Breakfasts in Overweight Adolescent Girls

Differences in postprandial insulin, glucose, and/or free fatty acid concentrations, following the consumption of breakfast, have been demonstrated to be dependent on habitual breakfast patterns. This study examined the effects of habitual breakfast patterns on postprandial appetite, satiety, and hormonal responses along with daily food intake following the consumption of normal-protein (NP) vs. higher-protein (HP) breakfasts in overweight adolescents. Thirty-seven girls (age: 19 ± 1 year; BMI: 29.0 ± 3.4 kg/m2) participated in the semi-randomized crossover design study. Participants were grouped according to whether they habitually skipped (SKIP, n = 18) or consumed breakfast (CONSUME, n = 19), and consumed a NP (350 kcal; 13 g protein) or HP (350 kcal; 35 g protein) breakfast for 3 days/pattern. On day 4, breakfast was provided, and appetite questionnaires and blood samples were collected throughout an 8 h testing day. Daily food intake was also assessed. Regardless of habitual breakfast patterns, the consumption of HP breakfast led to greater daily fullness (29,030 ± 6,010 min × mm) vs. NP breakfast (26,910 ± 5580 min × mm; p = 0.03). Daily protein consumption was greater (98 ± 15 g vs. 78 ± 15 g), and carbohydrate consumption was lower (331 ± 98 g vs. 367 ± 94 g) with HP vs. NP (both, p < 0.001). No other differences were observed. These data suggest that the recommendation to consume a HP breakfast for improved satiety and ingestive behavior is appropriate for overweight adolescent girls, regardless of habitual breakfast patterns.

Risperidone But Not Quetiapine Treatment Is Associated With Increased Appetite But Not Satiety Hormones in Children During An Oral Glucose Tolerance Test: A Pilot Study.

Second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) are commonly used to treat children with mental health conditions (MHCs) but are associated with adverse effects including obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and type 2 diabetes. The mechanisms underlying these complications are unknown, but it has been suggested that SGAs increase appetite leading to weight gain. The present objective was to perform a pilot study to investigate appetite and satiety hormones in SGA-treated (risperidone or quetiapine) and SGA-naive children with similar mental health conditions. Oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTTs) were conducted in SGA-naive (n = 18), risperidone-treated (n = 20), and quetiapine-treated (n = 16) children recruited from the British Columbia Children's Hospital Psychiatry Department. Over 5 time-points during the OGTT, appetite questionnaires using a visual analogue scale were administered, and blood was collected to measure ghrelin, peptide YY, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, glucagon-like protein 1, leptin, and adiponectin. Mixed model analyses were conducted to examine between-group differences. The children were similar in age, psychiatric diagnosis, and global assessment of functioning scores. Body mass index z-scores were also similar between groups. Appetite was increased during the OGTT in the risperidone-treated compared with the SGA-naive group for 2 questions ("How strong is your desire to eat"; P = 0.003 and "How much food do you think you can eat"; P = 0.028). No differences in satiety hormones were observed between the 3 groups. Risperidone treatment in youth is associated with elevated appetite during an OGTT, with no differences in gut peptides or adipocytokines to explain risperidone's effect on appetite. Further research is needed to explore other mediators of weight gain and metabolic dysfunction in SGA-treated youth.

Increased Protein Consumption during the Day from an Energy-Restricted Diet Augments Satiety but Does Not Reduce Daily Fat or Carbohydrate Intake on a Free-Living Test Day in Overweight Women

Background: Higher-protein (HP) energy-restriction diets improve weight management to a greater extent than normal-protein (NP) versions. Potential mechanisms of action with regard to assessment of eating behaviors across the day have not been widely examined during energy restriction.Objectives: The objectives of this study were to test whether the consumption of an HP energy-restriction diet reduces carbohydrate and fat intakes through improvements in daily appetite, satiety, and food cravings compared with NP versions and to test whether protein type within the NP diets alters protein-related satiety.Methods: Seventeen overweight women [mean ± SEM age: 36 ± 1 y; body mass index (kg/m2): 28.4 ± 0.1] completed a randomized, controlled-feeding crossover study. Participants were provided with the following ∼1250-kcal/d energy-restricted (-750-kcal/d deficit) diets, each for 6 d: HP [124 g protein/d; 60% from beef and 40% from plant sources (HP-BEEF)] or NP (48 g protein/d) that was protein-type matched (NP-BEEF) or unmatched [100% from plant-based sources (NP-PLANT)]. On day 6 of each diet period, participants completed a 12-h testing day containing repetitive appetite, satiety, and food-craving questionnaires. On day 7, the participants were asked to consume their protein requirement within each respective diet but were provided with a surplus of carbohydrate- and fat-rich foods to consume, ad libitum, at each eating occasion across the day. All outcomes reported were primary study outcomes.Results: The HP-BEEF diet reduced daily hunger by 16%, desire to eat by 15%, prospective food consumption by 14%, and fast-food cravings by 15% but increased daily fullness by 25% compared with the NP-BEEF and NP-PLANT diets (all P < 0.05). However, consuming more protein throughout the day did not reduce the energy consumed ad libitum from the fat- and carbohydrate-rich foods (HP-BEEF: 2000 ± 180 kcal/d; NP-BEEF: 2120 ± 190 kcal/d; NP-PLANT: 2070 ± 180 kcal/d). None of the outcomes differed between the NP-BEEF and NP-PLANT treatments.Conclusions: Although appetite control, satiety, and food cravings improved after an HP energy-restriction diet, increased protein consumption did not reduce carbohydrate and fat intakes throughout the free-living test day in overweight healthy women exposed to highly palatable foods. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02614729.

The effect of soluble fiber dextrin on postprandial appetite and subsequent food intake in healthy adults.

This crossover study investigated the effect of consuming a beverage that contains soluble fiber dextrin (SFD) on appetite and food intake in adults to test the hypothesis that beverages that contain 10 or 20 g of fiber from SFD would be more satiating than the control beverage. Forty-one participants consumed lunch with a beverage that contained 0 g, 10 g, or 20 g of fiber from SFD. Appetite questionnaires were completed and blood samples collected immediately before lunch and at regular intervals over the following 150 min. Then, participants were provided with an afternoon snack and the amount eaten was recorded. Participants then left the laboratory but were asked to complete hourly appetite questionnaires and record food intake for the remainder of the day. Consuming SFD had no effect on appetite over the 150 min after consumption of the lunch meal (P > 0.05). Hunger and desire to eat were lower and fullness higher after consumption of the beverage that contained 20 g of fiber from SFD (P < 0.05) after participants left the laboratory. There was no effect of consuming SFD on food intake at the snack meal or for the rest of the day (P > 0.05). Plasma glucose-dependent insulintropic polypeptide was lower during the 150 min after consumption of 20 g fiber from the SFD beverage (P < 0.05). There was no treatment effect on the plasma concentration of other biomarkers of glycemic response or appetite (P > 0.05). Overall, the study results did not show an effect of SFD on appetite, food intake, and plasma markers of appetite for the first 150 min postconsumption. Further research is required to quantify how SFD influences appetite several hours after consumption.

Effect of resistant wheat starch on subjective appetite and food intake in healthy adults.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of replacing standard wheat flour (SWF) with resistant wheat starch (RWS) on markers of appetite and food intake in healthy adults. A randomized, single-blind, crossover study was conducted with 27 healthy adults (ages23±2y with a body mass index of 23.0±3.0kg/m2). After an overnight fast, muffins that contained only SWF or muffins in which 40% of the SWF was replaced with RWS were consumed as part of the breakfast meal. Appetite questionnaires and plasma samples were collected before the test meal and at 10 time points after meal consumption. An ad libitum meal was provided 240min after breakfast, and the amount eaten was recorded. Food intake was recorded over the remainder of the day using a diet diary, and appetite was measured hourly using appetite questionnaires. Plasma was assayed to measure biomarkers of satiety and glycemia. Replacing SWF with RWS had no effect on subjective appetite or energy intake at the lunch meal (P>0.05). Total daily energy intake (including the breakfast meal) was reduced by 179kcal when participants consumed the RWS muffins (P=0.05). Replacing SWF with RWS reduced plasma insulin (P<0.05) but had no effect on plasma glucose, cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide-1, or peptide YY3-36 concentration (P>0.05). These results indicate that replacing SWF with RWS decreases plasma insulin concentration and reduces energy intake over a 24-h period.

Novel Methodological Considerations Regarding the Use of Visual Analog Scale (VAS) Questionnaires to Assess Appetite Control and Satiety

BackgroundVAS questionnaires are commonly used in appetite research to measure postprandial changes in hunger and fullness as markers of subsequent food intake. The current prevalence of smartphone usage provides an opportunistic platform to assess these questions. However, little is known with respect to whether the repetitive use of these questionnaires influence eating behavior or whether novel modifications in their delivery are warranted.ObjectivesTo compare VAS appetite and satiety questionnaires delivered through a smartphone application vs. a commonly used computerized program and to test whether the use of these questionnaires alter subsequent eating behavior.MethodsTwelve healthy young adults (age: 22±1 y; BMI: 22.1±0.9 kg/m2) completed the following randomized crossover design study. On five separate days, the participants came to the facility between 7–9 am and were placed in a room that was void of all time cues. Within 30 min after arrival, they were provided with a 130 kcal preload breakfast containing 30 g protein. During four of the five testing days, the participants completed VAS questionnaires (hunger, fullness, desire to eat, prospective food consumption) every 30 min for 4h using the respective appetite applications (ScaleKit) on an iPod Touch (Apple; Cupertino, CA) or netbook computer application (AVAS; Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory and Clinic; San Antonio, TX). At the end of the 4h periods, the participants were provided with an ad libitum pasta meal to consume until ‘comfortably full.’ To examine the influence of VAS assessment on subsequent eating behavior, no questionnaires were provided over the 4h period on one of the five testing days.ResultsNo differences in 4h postprandial hunger, fullness, desire to eat, or prospective food consumption were observed between the smartphone application and the computer program. Additionally, no differences in energy content consumed at the subsequent eating occasions were observed between the days that included the VAS questionnaires (484 ± 50 kcal) vs. no questionnaires (500 ± 53 kcal).ConclusionsThe use of a newly developed VAS smartphone application provides similar measures of reported appetite and satiety compared to a previously validated computer program and the use of VAS questionnaires does not influence subsequent eating behavior.Support or Funding InformationInternal Funds

Development of the Japanese version of the Council on Nutrition Appetite Questionnaire and its simplified versions, and evaluation of their reliability, validity, and reproducibility.

BackgroundBecause few Japanese questionnaires assess the elderly's appetite, there is an urgent need to develop an appetite questionnaire with verified reliability, validity, and reproducibility.MethodsWe translated and back-translated the Council on Nutrition Appetite Questionnaire (CNAQ), which has eight items, into Japanese (CNAQ-J), as well as the Simplified Nutritional Appetite Questionnaire (SNAQ-J), which includes four CNAQ-J-derived items. Using structural equation modeling, we examined the CNAQ-J structure based on data of 649 Japanese elderly people in 2013, including individuals having a certain degree of cognitive impairment, and we developed the SNAQ for the Japanese elderly (SNAQ-JE) according to an exploratory factor analysis. Confirmatory factor analyses on the appetite questionnaires were conducted to probe fitting to the model. We computed Cronbach's α coefficients and criterion-referenced/-related validity figures examining associations of the three appetite battery scores with body mass index (BMI) values and with nutrition-related questionnaire values. Test–retest reproducibility of appetite tools was scrutinized over an approximately 2-week interval.ResultsAn exploratory factor analysis demonstrated that the CNAQ-J was constructed of one factor (appetite), yielding the SNAQ-JE, which includes four questions derived from the CNAQ-J. The three appetite instruments showed almost equivalent fitting to the model and reproducibility. The CNAQ-J and SNAQ-JE demonstrated satisfactory reliability and significant criterion-referenced/-related validity values, including BMIs, but the SNAQ-J included a low factor-loading item, exhibited less satisfactory reliability and had a non-significant relationship to BMI.ConclusionsThe CNAQ-J and SNAQ-JE may be applied to assess the appetite of Japanese elderly, including persons with some cognitive impairment.

Ramadan model of intermittent fasting for 28d had no major effect on body composition, glucose metabolism, or cognitive functions in healthy lean men.

There has been a parallel increase in the incidence of obesity and diabetes as well as the number of daily meals. However, evidence is lacking regarding the role of intermittent fasting. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of a Ramadan model of intermittent fasting (RIF; 14h of daytime abstinence from food and drinking) for 28d on body composition, glucose metabolism, and cognitive function. Ten healthy, lean men were included in a nonrandomized, crossover, intervention study. Testing was performed before a control period of 28d, as well as before and after 28d of RIF. Whole-body dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, magnetic resonance imaging of the abdomen, fitness test, oral glucose tolerance test, and cognitive function tests were performed. As secondary outcome, the participants' physical activity and 72-h glycemic responses were monitored 6d within each of the periods. Dietary intake, appetite, and mood questionnaires also were assessed. Comparing Δ differences from testing days; body mass index changes from the control period (Δ mean: 0.2kg/m2, 95% confidence interval [CI], -2 to 0.5) and the RIF period (Δ mean: -0.3kg/m2, 95% CI, -0.6 to -0.1) were significantly different (P<0.05). Secondary outcomes within the RIF period showed an increased area under curve (AUC) for hunger accompanied by a reduced AUC for satiety (both, P<0.05), less mean steps per day (P<0.05), and less positive feelings in the afternoon (P<0.01) compared with the control period. No changes were observed in any of the other evaluated parameters. Free-living participants were able to comply with 14h of daily daytime abstinence from food and drinking for 28d with only a minor effect on body mass index and without any effects on body composition, glucose metabolism, and cognitive function.

The effect of the macronutrient composition of breakfast on satiety and cognitive function in undergraduate students.

It is believed that breakfast is an important meal due to its effect on appetite control and cognitive performance, yet little evidence exists to support this hypothesis. Using a crossover design, 33 healthy undergraduates (aged 22±2years with a BMI of 23.5±1.7kg/m2) were randomized one of four breakfast treatments: no breakfast, a low-protein breakfast containing no animal protein, a high-carbohydrate/low-protein breakfast containing animal protein or a low-carbohydrate/high-protein breakfast. After an overnight fast, participants reported to the laboratory and baseline appetite questionnaires and cognitive tests were completed. A baseline blood sample was also collected. These measures were repeated at regular intervals throughout the test session. An ad libitum lunch meal was provided 240min after breakfast, and the amount eaten recorded. Diet diaries and hourly appetite questionnaires were completed for the rest of the day. The no-breakfast treatment had a marked effect on appetite before lunch (p<.05). Moreover, participants consumed more energy at lunch following the no-breakfast treatment (p<.05). There was no difference in appetite before lunch or food intake at lunch following any treatment when breakfast was eaten. However, food intake over the entire test day was lowest for the no-breakfast treatment (p<.05). Plasma glucose and insulin were lower following the high-protein/low-carbohydrate treatment compared to the low-protein/high-carbohydrate-no animal protein treatment (p<.05). Participants were less happy when they missed breakfast (p<.05), but there were no other statistically significant effects of breakfast on mood or cognitive performance. These results suggest that changing the macronutrient content of breakfast influences the glycemic response, but has no effect on the appetitive or cognitive performance measures used in this present study.

Effect of Chia Seed (Salvia hispanica, L) Supplementation on Body Composition, Weight, Post‐prandial Glucose and Satiety

Research regarding the beneficial intake of chia seeds (high in α‐linolenic acid and dietary fiber) on body composition, weight, post‐prandial glucose levels (PPG) and satiety, in healthy female subjects is limited. Therefore, we sought to investigate the effects of adding 20% of daily calories from chia seeds on disease risk factors such as fat mass(FM), fat free mass(FFM), and body weight(BW), satiety, and PPG in healthy, free‐living females.College females (n=23) participated in a randomized, crossover design consisting of two five‐week diet treatment periods 1) chia seeds added (CHIA); 2) without chia seeds (CON), separated by a 5‐week washout. Body composition was measured with bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and dual‐energy x‐ray absorptiometry (DXA). Fasting glucose and PPG were measured at baseline and 60min after chia consumption. Satiety was measured by visual analog scale (VAS) appetite questionnaires. IBM SPSS v22 analyzed PPG (MANOVA), satiety, FM, FFM, and BW, (one‐way ANOVA), and the VAS appetite questionnaires (independent t‐test).There was a significant main effect for time for BW (pre = 55.2 kg, post = 54.7kg), BF (pre = 29.9%, post = 29.2%), FM (pre = 16.5kg, post = 15.9kg), and FFM (pre = 36.6kg, post = 36.4kg), and no significance for treatment by time or for all BIA variables, before, during and after meal satiety; or VAS and PPG between the CHIA and CON treatments. Consuming chia as 20% of calories does not contribute to weight gain or body composition changes.Support or Funding InformationSalba Smart Natural Products, LLC

Consuming High-Protein Soy Snacks Affects Appetite Control, Satiety, and Diet Quality in Young People and Influences Select Aspects of Mood and Cognition1–3

Background: Data concerning the effects of afternoon snacking on ingestive behavior, mood, and cognition are limited.Objective: The purpose of this study was to compare 1088 kJ of high-protein (HP) or high-fat (HF) afternoon snacks vs. no snacking on appetite, food intake, mood, and cognition in adolescents.Methods: Thirty-one healthy adolescents (age: 17 ± 1 y) consumed the following afternoon snacks (in randomized order) for 3 d: HP snack (26 g of protein/6 g of fat per 27 g of carbohydrates), HF snack (4 g of protein/12 g of fat per 32 g of carbohydrates), and no snack (NoS). On day 4 of each treatment, the participants completed an 8-h testing day containing pre- and postsnack appetite questionnaires, food cue–stimulated functional MRI brain scans, mood, cognitive function, and eating initiation. Ad libitum dinner and evening snacks were provided and assessed.Results: HP, but not HF, delayed eating initiation vs. NoS (P < 0.05). Both snacks reduced appetite vs. NoS (P < 0.001) with HP eliciting greater reductions than HF (P < 0.05). Only HF led to reductions in corticolimbic activation in brain regions controlling food motivation/reward vs. NoS (P < 0.01). Although no treatment differences in daily energy intake were detected, HP led to greater protein consumption than NoS (P < 0.05) and greater protein and lower fat consumption than HF (both, P < 0.05). HP led to fewer HF/high-sugar evening snacks than NoS (P < 0.01) and HF (P = 0.09). Although no treatment effects were detected for mood and cognition, HP tended to reduce confusion-bewilderment (P = 0.07) and increase cognitive flexibility (P = 0.09), whereas NoS reduced tension-anxiety (P < 0.05) and vigor-activity (P < 0.05).Conclusion: Afternoon snacking, particularly on HP soy foods, improves appetite, satiety, and diet quality in adolescents, while beneficially influencing aspects of mood and cognition. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01781286.

Consuming Beef vs. Soy Protein Has Little Effect on Appetite, Satiety, and Food Intake in Healthy Adults ,

Background: Although protein-rich plant foods have recently been touted as an equivalent to animal products, limited data exist regarding the effects of animal vs. plant proteins on appetite, satiety, and subsequent food intake. Objective: The objective was to determine whether a high-protein beef lunch alters the appetitive, hormonal, and neural signals controlling food intake regulation vs. a macronutrient and fiber–matched (MF) or serving size–matched (SS) soy lunch in healthy adults. Methods: A randomized, double-blind, crossover design study was completed in 21 adults (aged 23 ± 1 y; body mass index: 23.8 ± 0.6 kg/m2; mean ± SEM) to compare 400-kcal MF and SS lunches varying in protein quality. The MF lunches contained 24-g beef protein or 24-g soy protein, whereas the SS lunches contained 1 serving of beef (24-g protein/1-g fiber) or soy (14-g protein/5-g fiber). Pre- and postlunch appetite questionnaires and blood sampling were completed over an 8-h period until dinner was voluntarily requested. In addition, pre- and postlunch functional MRI brain scans were completed to assess neural activation in response to food stimuli. Results: On average, dinner was requested at ∼250 ± 20 min postlunch with no differences between beef vs. soy within the MF and SS conditions. Furthermore, no differences in hunger, fullness, peptide YY, or glucagon-like peptide-1 responses were observed after the beef vs. soy lunches within the MF and SS conditions. The SS beef meal led to reductions in anterior cingulate activation (−22 ± 6%) vs. soy (+7 ± 9%;P < 0.01) and greater reductions in insular activation (−30 ± 6%) vs. SS soy (−7 ± 10%;P < 0.01). The participants consumed ∼945 ± 78 kcal after the MF meals and 910 ± 74 kcal after the SS meals with no differences between beef vs. soy. Conclusions: When comparing 2 high-quality protein sources, such as beef and soy, the type of protein consumed within a mixed meal elicited very little effect on appetite, satiety, and food intake in healthy adults. This study was registered atclinicaltrials.gov as NCT02285907.

Appetite sensation scores and dietary intake of pregnant and lactating women in western Kenya (LB473)

Complex biological, behavioral, socioeconomic and psychological factors influence appetite and subsequent dietary intake; as such, focusing only on a single factor can lead to inappropriate dietary recommendations. This is especially true when poverty‐associated malnutrition and infectious diseases coexist; although both negatively impact dietary intake, very different solutions are needed. Therefore, our objective was to evaluate an adapted scale of appetite sensations and compare these scores to dietary intake among 20 pregnant and 18 lactating women in Nyanza province. A research dietitian implemented the adapted appetite and dietary intake questionnaires. The appetite questionnaire consisted of a 5‐point visual analog scale for each of 4 questions to assess degree of hunger, desire to eat, satiety or food aversions. Dietary intake was assessed by a 24‐hour dietary recall with macronutrient intake, dietary quality and diversity estimated. The majority (60%) consumed a sufficiently diverse diet (蠅6 food groups), with caloric intake distributed adequately between macronutrients (11%=protein; 64%=carbohydrate; 24%=lipid). Despite this, 2/3 consumed insufficient calories [mean(SD) pregnant=2000(717) kcal/d; lactating=2172(720)] and 40% consumed insufficient protein [pregnant=61(29)g/d; lactating=69(32)]. Higher caloric intake was moderately correlated with less hunger and weakly correlated with a greater desire to eat and fewer food aversions but not satiety. These data provide proof of concept that appetite sensations are correlated with dietary intake in this context, and future research is needed to evaluate how appetite scores differ according to poverty and/or infection causes of maternal malnutrition.