Anthropogenic Sediments Research Articles

Dating Gods: Radiocarbon Dates from the Sanctuary of Zeus on Mt. Lykaion (Arcadia, Greece)

This paper reports the results of the application of a calcined bone dating protocol to samples collected from the Sanctuary of Zeus on Mt. Lykaion in southern Greece. The site is a mountaintop ash altar rich in anthropogenic sediments, burned bone, and artifacts offered to the god Zeus. Experiments involving time series hydrolysis measurements were conducted on calcined bones from stratified layers throughout the sequence to determine if any of the samples underwent surface contamination from carbonate exchange with the surrounding sedimentary matrix. It was determined that such exchange was unlikely, but samples were acid-etched before pretreatment as a precautionary measure. Paired samples of seeds, charcoal, and calcined animal bone collected from a sediment column in the altar demonstrate the effectiveness of the calcined bone dating technique in this context. The results of dating indicate that the altar was in use from the Mycenaean period through the late Classical period, though samples were not collected from the upper levels of the site due to possible mixing of surface sediments. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) measurements were taken and crystallinity index values calculated, confirming that the bone samples are indeed calcined. The results presented here correspond with literary accounts of ritual animal sacrifice from historical texts from the 8th century BCE, including the Homeric epics.

An Assessment of the Status and Condition of Archaeological Remains Preserved In Situ in the Medieval Town of Trondheim Based on Archeochemical Investigations Conducted During the Period 2007–2010

In recent years systematic archeochemical investigations in the medieval town of Trondheim have provided the heritage management authorities with a rich and complex set of data concerning the status and condition of the cultural deposits in the anthropogenic material. The collected data raises important questions for the long-time management of in situ preservation for archaeological material in non-saturated zones. In this paper we present the standardized scientific methods used in these archeochemical investiga- tions. We examine the results from several sites in the town and discuss the challenges facing modern heritage management in its efforts to protect a complex body of archaeological material in the non-saturated zone. We show that sediments with a thickness of 1–2 m have low levels of moisture and organic matter, and most of the inorganic parameters analysed are found in oxidized form with low preservations. The 2–3 m thick anthropogenic sediments showed better preservation conditions.

Assessing post-depositional processes in archaeological cave fires through the analysis of archaeomagnetic vectors

This paper presents a methodological application of archaeomagnetism and rock-magnetism as a tool to evaluate post-depositional mechanical alterations in archaeological cave fires. Most taphonomic and post-depositional studies on anthropogenic sediments have mainly focused on the diagenetic alterations that these contexts undergo from a geochemical point of view. However, physical alterations are still largely assessed from mere macroscopic observations of the burnt facies comprising these fires. This paper compares the archaeomagnetic directions recorded in the ashes of two Holocene fires from the Mirador Cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain), one apparently well-preserved and the other clearly bioturbated. Vector analyses of archaeomagnetic directions, together with the study of magnetic properties combined with field (macroscopic) observations, can provide a powerful tool to assess when a fire is actually in situ. The anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) in both fires exhibits a dominant sedimentary fabric produced by compaction, and also exhibits differences between the areas mechanically disturbed within these fires from those which are not. The following set of magnetic features was identified when an archaeological fire preserves its primary position: i) univectoral and high intensity NRM orthogonal demagnetisation diagrams in ashes, ii) Koenigsberger (Qn) ratio values higher than unity indicative of an undisturbed thermo-remanence (TRM) or a partial-thermoremanence (p-TRM) and iii) a good clustering of characteristic directions defining an statistically representative mean archaeomagnetic direction. The concurrence of these observations can be used as criterion to determine when an archaeological cave fire is physically in situ, thus allowing a correct interpretation of the archaeological record.

Thermodynamic Stabilization of Hydrous Ferric Oxide by Adsorption of Phosphate and Arsenate

Hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) is an X-ray amorphous compound with a high affinity for anions under strongly or mildly acidic conditions. Because of the usually small particle size of HFO, the adsorption capacity is high and adsorption may significantly impact the thermodynamic properties of such materials. Here we show that adsorption of phosphate and arsenate stabilizes HFO by experimental determination of enthalpies of formation (by acid-solution calorimetry) and estimates of standard entropies for six phosphate- or arsenate-enriched HFO samples. At pH values lower than ∼5, the phosphate-doped HFO is not only less soluble than ferrihydrite (anion-free HFO) but also crystalline FeOOH polymorphs feroxyhyte and lepidocrocite. The arsenate-doped HFO is also stabilized with respect to the ferrihydrite. Phosphate availability in soils can be controlled by the phosphate-enriched HFO which is many orders of magnitude less soluble than apatite or crystalline Fe(III) phosphates, for example strengite (FePO(4)·2H(2)O). Thermodynamic dissolution models for scorodite (FeAsO(4)·2H(2)O) and As-enriched HFO show that under mildly acidic or circumneutral conditions, scorodite dissolves, As-HFO precipitates, and a substantial amount of As(V) is released into the aqueous solution (at pH 7, log m(As) ∼ -2.5). The data presented in this paper can be used to model the equilibrium concentration of Fe(III), P(V), or As(V) in soil solutions or in natural or anthropogenic sediments polluted by arsenic.

Environment and Economy of the Early Medieval Settlement in Žatec

Environment and Economy of the Early Medieval Settlement in Žatec

Trophic structure of macroinvertebrates in Amazonian streams impacted by anthropogenic siltation

AbstractThis study assessed the results of anthropogenic sediment input on macroinvertebrate trophic structure in streams located in an area of oil and natural gas exploitation in Brazil's Amazon forest. The results indicate that macroinvertebrate communities both in streams impacted by anthropogenic sediments and in non‐impacted streams are composed mainly of taxa in the following functional feeding groups: predators, gathering‐collectors, scrapers, shredders and filtering‐collectors. The highest densities were observed for collector‐gatherers, followed by scrapers, predators, shredders and filtering‐collectors. However, both the richness and the density of all groups were reduced in impacted streams. The reductions were significantly related to suspended inorganic sediment load and to the colour of suspended sediments. The relative proportion of shredders in streams impacted by anthropogenic sediments was significantly reduced as compared with the proportion observed in non‐impacted streams. This resulted from lower availability of coarse particulate organic matter in these streams owing to burial of leaves and other plant material. These results indicate changes in the functioning and productivity of streams owing to anthropogenic siltation. This is because the benthic macroinvertebrate communities, sampled during this study, were dependent on the degradation of leaves, which are the primary energy source sustaining the benthic foodweb.

Site formation processes at Pinnacle Point Cave 13B (Mossel Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa): resolving stratigraphic and depositional complexities with micromorphology

Site PP13B is a cave located on the steep cliffs of Pinnacle Point near Mossel Bay in Western Cape Province, South Africa. The depositional sequence of the cave, predating Marine Isotopic Stage 11 (MIS 11) and continuing to present, is in the form of isolated sediment exposures with different depositional facies and vertical and lateral variations. Micromorphological analysis demonstrated that a suite of natural sedimentation processes operated during the development of the sequence ranging from water action to aeolian activity, and from speleothem formations to plant colonization and root encrustation. At the same time, anthropogenic sediments that are mainly in the form of burnt remains from combustion features (e.g., wood ash, charcoal, and burnt bone) were accumulating. Several erosional episodes have resulted in a complicated stratigraphy, as discerned from different depositional and post-depositional features. The cave is associated with a fluctuating coastal environment, frequent changes in sea level and climate controlled patterns of sedimentation, and the presence or absence of humans.

Arsenic mobility from anthropogenic impoundment sediments – Consequences of contamination to biota, water and sediments, Poša, Eastern Slovakia

Abstract An impoundment located near the village of Posa, Slovakia, is a significant source of contamination with As originating from the deposited coal fly-ashe. Waters penetrating the impoundment are enriched in As and other potentially toxic elements. As a consequence of the contamination, the Kyjov Brook and the Ondava River have been extensively polluted. The mobility and solid-state partitioning of As in the impoundment material and stream sediments were investigated using column leaching and batch extraction tests, and a five-step sequential extraction procedure. Moreover, to investigate the bioavailability of As, two native plant species (Typha latifolia, or cattail, and Phragmites australis, or common reed) growing at the site were collected and analyzed. The As concentrations in representative sediment and water samples ranged from 36.3 to 3210 mg/kg and from 4.05 to 613 μg/L, respectively, both being many times above the background levels. Although a part of As was present in a readily soluble form (6.6%), the majority of As was mainly associated with Fe and Mn oxides (37%) and residual phases (51%). Combined results of the column leaching, batch extraction, and sequential extraction tests, as well as mineralogical analysis, indicated that As mobilisation potential from the sediments is likely controlled by Fe, Al and Mn oxides, and by pH. There was no influence of various anions ( PO 4 3 - , SO 4 2 - , NO 3 - , Cl - and HCO 3 - ) on As mobility when present in aqueous solution at concentrations analogous to those in the water of the Kyjov Brook. Plants growing in the impoundment had As concentrations 10–100 times greater than did the same plants growing in a relatively non-polluted area.

Sinkholes in the salt-bearing evaporite karst of the Ebro River valley upstream of Zaragoza city (NE Spain): Geomorphological mapping and analysis as a basis for risk management

A detailed sinkhole map has been produced in a stretch of the Ebro Valley (40.8 km 2) including the western sector of Zaragoza city (NE Spain). During the last few decades, around 70% of the original sinkhole area has been filled with anthropogenic sediments causing the disappearance of 137 ha of wetlands. The interstratal karstification of salts (halite and glauberite) and a WNW–ESE-trending joint set have played a major control in the development of sinkholes. Three morphometric types of sinkholes have been differentiated, each attributed to a specific subsidence mechanism inferred from the paleosinkholes exposed in the surrounding of Zaragoza city; sagging of bedrock and cover, collapse of bedrock and cover, and collapse of cover material related to the downward migration of particles through dissolutional conduits. Each type of sinkhole is characterised by a distinctive behaviour in terms of controlling factors, spatio-temporal distribution and kinematics, and consequently the proposed differentiation may have a practical utility. The vast majority of the subsidence damage identified in the area occurs within the boundaries of pre-existing sinkholes identifiable in old aerial photographs and topographical maps. This fact demonstrates that the application of preventive planning strategies based on detailed geomorphological maps would have allowed avoidance of most of the large financial losses caused by subsidence in the area, of the order of hundreds of thousands of euros per year.

Identification of activity area signatures in a reconstructed Iron Age house by combining element and lipid analyses of sediments

One promising analytical method used in household archaeology in addition to inorganic (element) geochemical analysis is that of organic (lipid) analysis applied to anthropogenic sediments. We use both methods here to review chemical imprints that might be useful for recognizing space use and identifying daily activities in a reconstructed Iron Age village at Lejre, Denmark. As documented in many previous studies, element analysis enabled separate activity areas to be distinguished, but the results could not be used to identify the specific activities pursued in the areas. A more qualitative identification of activity areas was possible through lipid analysis, however. The carbon chain distribution, studied for Average Chain Length (ACL), Carbon chain Diversity Index (CDI) and Carbon Preference Index (CPI), enabled a similar separation to be achieved as by element analysis, so that the same areas could be discerned in addition to the reference samples. The stable was distinguished by a substantial input of coprostanol and even more so by 24-ethylcoprostanol, indicating a faecal input from herbivores. Trace levels of these markers were also identified at the entrance, where the animals had passed through. The dwelling area, consisting of two adjacent rooms, could be identified by the sterol ratio (cholesterol/[stigmasterol + β-sitosterol + campesterol]). Lipids from an archaeological context have decayed further toward simpler compounds and become more difficult to identify. Some markers have however a better potential for survival. The results emphasize the importance of further studies on ethnoarchaeological material in order to recognize past activities by element analysis. Moreover, the combination of element and lipid analyses provided a tool that enabled all the separate areas to be identified and provided positive identification of the activities concerned in all areas except the smithy.

Modelling land use around an early Neolithic timber ‘hall’ in north east Scotland from high spatial resolution pollen analyses

A methodology is described by which spatial patterns of land use were reconstructed from pollen analyses on anthropogenic sediments at a recently excavated early Neolithic timber ‘hall’ in north east Scotland. The anthropogenic sediments were from a deep, small diameter pit within the building. They present numerous taphonomic and interpretative challenges to the analyst, but from this type of deposit, the power to estimate quantitatively the vegetation structure around the archaeological site makes such difficult deposits very significant. A rigorous methodology is firstly described, therefore, by which confidence in ecological interpretation can be established. Secondly, the source of pollen in the deposit is evaluated. Thirdly, the possible pollen source area and structure of the surrounding vegetation are estimated by quantitative simulation modelling. Finally, these analyses are compared with region-scale pollen analyses from nearby conventional wetland deposits with much larger pollen source areas. The pollen assemblages recovered probably reflect land uses adjacent to the ‘hall’ and up to 2.5 km around. Cereal cultivation was the most important land use immediately around the ‘hall’, possibly grown between stands of scrub Corylus (hazel) woodland. These intensive but local-scale land uses cannot be discerned in region-scale pollen analyses.

Subsistence practices in an arid environment: a geoarchaeological investigation in an Iron Age site, the Negev Highlands, Israel

The Negev Highlands (southern Israel) is an arid zone characterized by settlement oscillations. One settlement peak occurred in the early Iron Age IIA (late 10th and early 9th centuries BC). The most conspicuous structure in many sites of this period is an oval compound comprised of an internal courtyard surrounded by rooms. Two hypotheses for the function of these oval compounds are that they served as Israelite fortresses which guarded the southern border and routes of the Solomonic kingdom, or that they represent local agro-pastoral groups. In order to gather more information regarding the subsistence practices conducted in these oval compounds, we carried out a small-scale excavation at the site of Atar Haroa. We focused on sediment sampling and used several geoarchaeological, as well as isotopic, techniques in order to identify macroscopic and microscopic remains related to animal husbandry and crop agriculture. The remains identified from the archaeological sediments were compared with modern reference materials collected from abandoned Bedouin camps. The excavation included two half rooms and several test pits in the courtyard of the oval compound, featuring one Iron Age occupation level composed of gray sediments and relatively small amounts of pottery, bones and macro-botanical charred remains. Micromorphological, mineralogical, dung spherulite and isotopic analyses carried out on the gray occupational sediments from the rooms show that they originate from wood ash and dung, both used as fuel. Similar analyses of the gray sediments in the courtyard show that they originate only from degraded livestock dung. Phytolith analyses show that the gray anthropogenic sediments have similar concentrations of phytoliths as in control (yellowish) sediments and in the dung of winter free-grazing desert livestock and lichen-grazing black dwarf Bedouin goats. Phytoliths indicative of cereal crops are completely absent in the archaeological dung remains, indicating that cereal crops were not processed by the site inhabitants. Based on ethnographic and archaeological parallels, and on the presence of grinding stones and absence of sickle blades in the excavated rooms, we infer that the inhabitants at the oval compound at Atar Haroa subsisted on livestock herding and bought or exchanged cereal grains. Our results support the hypothesis that the inhabitants at the oval compound at Atar Haroa were desert-adapted pastoralists, rather than garrisoned soldiers.

Ancient plant DNA in archaeobotany

Plant diaspores, tissues and wood are preserved in natural and anthropogenic sediments. Also, over the past centuries, plants have been collected in herbaria. These plant remains carry macroscopic and molecular information, making them a rich source for reconstructing past plant use, agriculture, diet or vegetation—they are thus proxies for past economies, ecology, migrations or trade. This article focuses on the application of ancient DNA analyses from plants excavated at Holocene archaeological sites. A short methodological section is added to illustrate possibilities and limitations of ancient DNA research in plants.

Deciphering human prehistory through the geoarcheological study of cave sediments

AbstractThroughout human history, caves and rockshelters have been favored habitation places. These unique environments preserve sediments derived from an assortment of geological and human processes that are typically absent or masked at open‐air sites. Cave sediments are parts of larger stratigraphic frameworks that can reflect environmental changes, shifting microenvironments, and the nature of human activity within these confined and sheltered spaces. Stone tools and faunal material compose the artifact assemblages from caves that are typically studied. Cave sediments, on the other hand, which encase the archeological finds and which have both geological and human origins, have been understudied relative to traditional artifacts, in spite of their ubiquity and importance. Thus, anthropogenic sediments, the most striking of which are organic‐rich deposits, and combustion features merit the same attention as any other artifacts that result from human activities and behaviors.The purpose of this paper is to highlight some of the most salient aspects of prehistoric cave sediments and the processes revealed by recent studies of these accumulations. We review methods and techniques that are used to analyze cave sediments and illustrate how their careful study can be used to reconstruct local and regional cave environments, as well as the nature of the human activities that produced them. Finally, we show how such study can place important constraints on our archeological interpretations, ultimately having a profound effect on how we decipher human prehistory.

Earth Science, Soil Chemistry, and Archaeology

Soil science and geology naturally combine in archaeology to study landscape, environment, the history of sites belonging to previous civilizations, to supply evidence for household and rural activities, or to retrieve fabrication and provenance of artifacts made of earth resources (e.g., chert and obsidian blades, gemstones, earthenware, and even glass and metallic objects). The long-term records of geophysics and geochemistry are practical also for radiocarbon studies of soil organic matter and pedogenic carbonates, for archaeomagnetic dating,1 and for resolving the sequence of archaeological deposits. During the occupation of a site, humans exploit the environment and affect the recycling of the ecosystem in distinctive ways. Anthropogenic sediments form

Investigating Activity Patterns In Prehispanic Plazas: Weak Acid‐Extraction ICP–AES Analysis of Anthrosols at Classic Period El Coyote, Northwestern Honduras

Weak acid‐extraction ICP–AES analysis was performed to obtain multi‐elemental characterizations of anthropogenic sediments from plaza spaces that no longer contain artefacts and adjacent trash deposits at the prehispanic site of El Coyote in northwestern Honduras. Multivariate quantitative assessments of the anthrosol chemical data, along with associated inventories of midden materials, are examined to derive signatures for activity areas and refuse dumps that can be linked across portions of the site. The findings of this study permit the reconstruction of activity patterns in the site's main plaza and in its environs. This has important implications for understanding the relationship among ritual practice, craft production and political economy during the Late and Terminal Classic periods, c. ad 600–1000.

Identifying Chemical Activity Residues on Prehistoric House Floors: A Methodology And Rationale For Multi‐Elemental Characterization of a Mild Acid Extract of Anthropogenic Sediments

Archaeologists have employed sediment chemistry in site prospection for nearly a century. For example, phosphorus is a good indicator of human occupation, because it is a generic indicator of human activity. Recently, multi‐element studies of sediments have successfully identified specific activity areas by analysing other elements in addition to phosphorus. To reach its full potential, however, sediment chemistry must be undertaken with an understanding of how these residues are formed and of the chemical indicators that can be used to identify specific activities. Methodologies that optimize the extraction of specific residues must be employed. Not to do so is a naïve application of the technique.

Quantitation of Nonextractable Anthropogenic Quantitation of Nonextractable Anthropogenic Sediments after Chemical Degradation

AbstractFour highly contaminated sediment samples obtained from three sampling locations of the Teltow Canal, Berlin, were investigated by quantitation of extractable and nonextractable organic contaminants. The selection of the anthropogenic contaminants (including chlorinated and brominated naphthalenes, 2, 4, 6‐tribromoaniline, phthalates, tri‐n‐butylphosphate, 2, 2, 4‐trimethyl‐1, 3‐pentanediol diisobutyrate, bisphenol A, butylated nitrophenols, 4‐nitrobenzoic acid, galaxolide, and tonalide) based on the results of extended GC‐MS screening analyses applied to the extracts of the sediment samples as well as to the extracts derived from selective chemical degradation procedures. In detail, alkaline hydrolyses, BBr3‐treatment and RuO4‐oxidation were applied to the pre‐extracted sediment samples in both a separate and a sequential mode.

Sediments, porewaters and diagenesis in an urban water body, Salford, UK: impacts of remediation

AbstractContaminated sediments deposited within urban water bodies commonly exert a significant negative effect on overlying water quality. However, our understanding of the processes operating within such anthropogenic sediments is currently poor. This paper describes the nature of the sediment and early diagenetic reactions in a highly polluted major urban water body (the Salford Quays of the Manchester Ship Canal) that has undergone remediation focused on the water column.The style of sedimentation within Salford Quays has been significantly changed as a result of remediation of the water column. Pre‐remediation sediments are composed of a range of natural detrital grains, predominantly quartz and clay, and anthropogenic detrital material dominated by industrial furnace‐derived metal‐rich slag grains. Post‐remediation sediments are composed of predominantly autochthonous material, including siliceous algal remains and clays. At the top of the pre‐remediation sediments and immediately beneath the post‐remediation sediments is a layer significantly enriched in furnace‐derived slag grains, input into the basin as a result of site clearance prior to water‐column remediation. These grains contain a high level of metals, resulting in a significantly enhanced metal concentration in the sediments at this depth.Porewater analysis reveals the importance of both bacterial organic matter oxidation reactions and the dissolution of industrial grains upon the mobility of nutrient and chemical species within Salford Quays. Minor release of iron and manganese at shallow depths is likely to be taking place as a result of bacterial Fe(III) and Mn(IV) reduction. Petrographic analysis reveals that the abundant authigenic mineral within the sediment is manganese‐rich vivianite, and thus Fe(II) and Mn(II) released by bacterial reactions may be being taken up through the precipitation of this mineral. Significant porewater peaks in iron, manganese and silicon deeper in the sediment column are most probably the result of dissolution of furnace‐derived grains in the sediments. These species have subsequently diffused into porewater above and below the metal‐enriched layer.This study illustrates that the remediation of water quality in anthropogenic water bodies can significantly impact upon the physical and chemical nature of sedimentation. Additionally, it also highlights how diagenetic processes in sediments derived from anthropogenic grains can be markedly different from those in sediments derived from natural detrital material. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

An Ethnoarchaeological Perspective on the Material and Chemical Residues of Communal Feasting at El Coyote, Northwest Honduras

ABSTRACTThis paper examines artifact distributions and chemical analysis of anthropogenic sediments by ICP-AES spectroscopy from the main civic-ceremonial plaza at the Late Classic (ca. AD 700-900) site of El Coyote in northwestern Honduras. Based on ethnoarchaeological comparisons drawn from a phosphate study of plaza soils in the nearby modern-day town of Petoa, spatial aspects of the organization of communal feasting are inferred for El Coyote.