Anthocyanin Components Research Articles

Integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses reveal differences in the biosynthetic pathway of anthocyanins in Fragaria nilgerrensis and Fragaria pentaphylla

Anthocyanins, which commonly exist in fruits, have substantial benefits for human health. Fragaria nilgerrensis and F. pentaphylla are two species of wild strawberry with white and red fruits, respectively. To understand the molecular mechanism that underlies the biosynthesis of anthocyanins in strawberry, combined analyses of transcriptomics and metabolomics were conducted between the two species of Fragaria to compare the anthocyanin component and the biosynthetic pathway. A total of 26 anthocyanins were obtained in both of the species. Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside chloride, cyanidin 3-galactoside, and cyanidin 3-glucoside were the major anthocyanins in F. nilgerrensis and F. pentaphylla. The content of most of the anthocyanin components in F. pentaphylla was higher than those in F. nilgerrensis. No glycoside pelargonidin was detected in the white fruits of F. nilgerrensis, revealing that the anthocyanins underlie the white mutation. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the expression of almost all the anthocyanin structural genes and transcription factors genes MYB10 and MYB1 in the fruits of F. pentaphylla was up-regulated compared with those in the fruits of F. nilgerrensis. The results indicate that three structural genes, including chalcone synthase, dihydroflavonol reductase, and UDP-glucose: flavonol 3-O-glucosyltransferaseare likely to be the candidate genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis in the two species of Fragaria. In addition, the lack of pelargonidin might be due to the block of transformation catalyzed by leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase or UDP-glucose flavonoid glucosyl transferase.

Restraint of Bagging on Fruit Skin Coloration in on-Tree Kiwifruit (Actinidia arguta)

Fruit skin color is an important characteristic of fruit quality. The light-mediated regulation on fruit skin coloration in Actinidia arguta remains unclear. To better understand the role of light in fruit skin coloration, we performed bagging treatments in both on-tree and off-tree ‘Hongbaoshixing’, which is a kind of all-red-typed A. arguta cultivar. Non-bagging kiwifruits were used as control. For off-tree fruits, there was no difference between non-bagging and bagging treatments. For on-tree fruits, physiological and molecular changes were investigated during fruit development in non-bagging and bagging treatments. Phenotypic identification and the hue angle measurement showed that the stage of most significant color difference between non-bagging and bagging treatments was 130 days (after full bloom). Determination of five anthocyanin components suggested cyanidin-3-O-galactoside and cyanidin-3-O-xylose-galactoside made a main contribution to the fruit skin coloration. Gene expression profiles and cluster analysis showed AaLDOX and AaUFGT were highly expressed at 130 days and obviously clustered into the same class in non-bagging treatment, respectively. Correlation analysis suggested only AaLDOX expression was significantly correlated with anthocyanin content in non-bagging treatment while no correlation in bagging treatment. Similar results was observed for MYB1 transcription factor. The result of subcellular localization showed that AaLDOX was located in the cytoplasm, indicating AaLDOX is indeed structural gene that encodes leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase participated in anthocyanin biosynthesis. All results were used to establish a possible working model, showing that light is indispensable for normal fruit skin coloration, and bagging treatment suppresses anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation mainly by inhibiting AaMYB1 and AaLDOX expression in A. arguta.

Potential for antioxidant and antihyperglycemic activities of four everbearing strawberry cultivars

‘Goha’, ‘Gangha’, ‘Gwanha’, and ‘Yeolha’ are newly-developed Korean everbearing strawberry (Fragaria ananassa Duch.) cultivars. Bioactive phytochemicals play a crucial role in the prevention of cancer, cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, and metabolic diseases. We examined the free radical scavenging activity and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in these four cultivars and a junebearing cultivar ‘Seolhyang’ for comparison. ‘Gwanha’ showed the strongest 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) free radical scavenging activities, and ‘Gwanha’ and ‘Goha’ had the most potent α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Total anthocyanin content (TAC) was the highest in ‘Gwanha’. The major anthocyanin components of everbearing strawberry were determined to be pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside (Pg3G), pelargonidin-3-O-rutinoside, and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G). A correlation study between activity and components revealed that TAC was highly correlated with antioxidant and antihyperglycemic activities, and in principal component analysis, C3G is highly correlated with antioxidant activity and Pg3G is highly correlated with the antihyperglycemic effect of everbearing strawberries. Among the four everbearing strawberry cultivars, ‘Gwanha’ and ‘Goha’ are rich sources of pelargonidin showing strong α-glucosidase inhibitory activity and are promising dietary sources to prevent diabetes.

White light emission from a single plant source extract with tunable photoluminescence.

Blue, yellow and red emissions from the extract of a single plant source (pomegranate), under NUV light excitation have been reported. The blue emission (450nm) was attributed to baicalin and protein, whereas the yellow (550nm) and red (665nm) emissions were due to two kinds of anthocyanin components (A1 and A2, respectively). Both the green-to-white and yellow-to-white photoluminescences were tuned by variation of excitation wavelengths (350-400nm). This change in photoluminescence was due to the occurrence of Forster resonance energy transfer from baicalin to A1. White light emission with good CIE color coordinates (0.34, 0.33) was obtained from the pomegranate pulp extract solution (12% w/v) at excitation of 350nm. The results demonstrated that white light emission could be achieved from a single plant source, which would provide a new method for the design and fabrication of WLE with simple, green, and low-cost materials.

Isolation and Identification of Anthocyanin Component in the Fruits of Acanthopanax Sessiliflorus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Seem. by Means of High Speed Counter Current Chromatography and Evaluation of Its Antioxidant Activity.

Acanthopanax sessiliflorus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Seem. (Araliaceae) is one of the most abundant species of genus Acanthopanax. The fruits of A. sessiliflorus are used in traditional medical protocols as an analgesic, tonic, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and immune-stimulating agent. In this work, we carried out a comprehensive investigation into the anthocyanin components in the fruits of A. sessiliflorus. The anthocyanin content in the fresh fruits of A. sessiliflorus was determined by high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC/DAD), and the anthocyanin component was isolated from these using high-speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC) and elucidated by electro-spray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI/MS), 1H- and 13C-NMR. Its antioxidant activity was evaluated by ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). We found that A. sessiliflorus contained a gross anthocyanin content of 121.35 mg/100 g. HSCCC was successfully used for separation and purification of the primary anthocyanin component, cyanidin 3-xylosyl-galactoside. The antioxidant and radical scavenging tests indicated that cyanidin 3-xylosyl-galactoside is a potent antioxidant.

Ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic extraction and identification of anthocyanin components from mulberry wine residues

Mulberry wine residues produced during the wine-brewing process contain several anthocyanins and other bioactive compounds. Therefore this study optimized the conditions for ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction of anthocyanins from mulberry wine residues. A three-level, four-factor Box–Behnken design was used to optimize the extraction conditions. Moreover, anthocyanins were determined using an ultra-performance liquid chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS). The mathematical model suggested a high coefficient of determination (R2 = 0.9475) for the optimum conditions, namely 52 °C, 315 W, 0.22% enzyme and 94 min incubation. The yield (5.98 mg/g) was close to the predicted value (5.87 mg/g). The two anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside) identified are consistent with those present in mulberry. The optimized conditions increased anthocyanin yield, through improved utilization of mulberry wine residues. The findings will potentially lead to a reduction in the environmental burden of this waste and improve the efficiency and productivity of the mulberry fruit processing industry.

Optimisation of extraction procedure and development of LC–DAD–MS methodology for anthocyanin analysis in anthocyanin-pigmented corn kernels

An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–diode array detector–mass spectrometry method was developed for characterisation and quantification of anthocyanin components in complex corn-kernel matrices. The anthocyanin profiles and total anthocyanin content (TAC) of mature seeds of five types of anthocyanin-pigmented corn were reported. Internal standard was used to validate the efficiency of extraction and optimise the liquid extraction procedure for anthocyanins. A total of eighteen anthocyanins were identified and quantified. Cyanidin-based glucosides were the major pigments of purple-pericarp sweetcorn (75.5% of TAC) and blue-aleurone maize (91.6%), while pelargonidin-based glucosides composed the main anthocyanins of reddish-purple-pericarp sweetcorn (61.1%) and cherry-aleurone maize (74.6%). Importantly, previous studies reported the presence of acetylated and succinylated anthocyanins in corn kernels; these compounds were found to be artefact pigments, generated during the extraction process. These crucial findings provide the correct anthocyanin profiles of pigmented corns, and emphasise the importance of using acidified solutions for the extraction of corn-based anthocyanins.

Evaluation of the comparative morphological and quality in fig (Sichuan, China) with different colors under different ripening stages

Fig (Ficus carica L.) has been used in China as food and medicine for millennia, and globally has been consumed increasingly as a healthy food. Sichuan, especially the Weiyuan area, always had the reputation of producing best fig quality. The comparative morphological and quality of 6 fig cultivars were correlated with the main planting fig with three different colors in Sichuan, China: Yellow (Orphan, Browns Wick), Red (Bpjihon, Masui Dauphine, Wild-type), Purple (Japanese Purple Fruit). This study aimed to explore the morphological characteristics in fig, and composition, content and dynamic changes rule of the organic acids and anthocyanins in different parts (peel and pulp) of fruits under different ripening stages (eight mature and full mature). These provide important theoretical bases for the improvement, production, and quality assessment of fig cultivars. In this experiment, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for the determination of organic acids and anthocyanins in figs was established for the first time. Each organic acid and anthocyanin component had a linear coefficient of >0.996, and good values were obtained for linear correlation, precision, and reproducibility. During the ripening of fig, malic acid, quinic acid, and citric acid were the main organic acids of fig, followed by tartaric acid and succinic acid, with the lowest content found for fumaric acid. The highest anthocyanin content was observed for cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, followed by cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, and cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside had the least content. The accumulation pattern of organic acids and anthocyanins was observed to change. The organic acids accumulation pattern changed from malic acid and quinic acid to malic acid, citric acid accumulation or malic acid, citric acid and quinic acid to the accumulation of the three organic acids. The accumulation pattern of anthocyanins was mainly composed of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside accumulation, and the change during ripening was not significant. This pattern may play an important role in the determination of acidity, sweetness, and flavor quality of fig fruits in Sichuan, China.

Anthocyanin components for dye-sensitized solar cells extracted from Teclea Shimperi fruit as light-harvesting materials

In this work, anthocyanin components extracted from Teclea Shimperi fruit has been utilized as a light harvester for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The anthocyanin dyes were anchored on the TiO2 surface and used as a light harvester, while the quasi-solid state electrolyte (I−/I3−) was sandwiched in between the PEDOT coated FTO counter electrode and photoelectrode. The assembled photoanode, PEDOT coated FTO counter electrode, and quasi-solid state electrolyte were illuminated by a light intensity of 100 mW cm−2 to measure the photoelectrochemical parameters. Under this illumination, the best power conversion efficiency of 0.340 ± 0.012% (η) was achieved. The as-prepared DSSC was also showed a Jsc = 1.240 ± 0.021 mA cm−2, Voc = 0.453 ± 0.009 V, and a FF of 60.367 ± 0.617% using acidified ethanol for extraction. The maximum value of IPCE (~5%) was recorded at 630 nm from a cell made by anthocyanin extracted using acidified ethanol. This is the first report that unveiled the possibility of extracting heterocyclic compounds of anthocyanin type from Teclea Shimperi fruit using different solvents. Thus, the use of Teclea Shimperi fruit as natural sensitizers can be an indispensable option to produce low-cost and environmentally friendly DSSCs.

Chalcone Synthase-Encoding AeCHS is Involved in Normal Petal Coloration in Actinidia eriantha.

Studies on anthocyanin biosynthesis have been mainly concentrated on the fruit, whereas few have focused the mechanism of flower coloration in kiwifruit. Here, we report that the structural gene, AeCHS, is involved in anthocyanin accumulation and indispensable for normal petal coloration in Actinidia eriantha. Petals from three different species including Actinidia eriantha (red petals), Actinidia hemsleyana (light pink petals) and Actinidia arguta (white petals) were selected for anthocyanin determination and gene expression analysis. The anthocyanin components in A. eriantha were significantly higher than in A. hemsleyana or A. arguta. Consistently, gene expression profiles suggested that AeCHS expression in A. eriantha was higher than in A. hemsleyana or A. arguta. Cluster analysis showed that AeCHS was clustered into a single group and distinctly separated from other genes, indicating the expression pattern of AeCHS gene was different from any other. Additionally, correlation analysis revealed AeCHS expression significantly correlated with anthocyanin content. The complete coding sequence of AeCHS was cloned from petals of A. eriantha ‘Zaoxu’, showing the length of AeCHS was 1170 bp encoding a protein of 389 amino acids. AeCHS was located in the cytoplasm, indicating it is indeed a structural gene involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis. AeCHS silencing performed by infiltration grafting-mediated virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) reduced petal anthocyanin content and bleached red petals in A. eriantha. Our results confirm a crucial role of AeCHS in anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation in A. eriantha petals; furthermore, they offer important basic information and constitute a reference point for further research.

BcXyl, a β-xylosidase Isolated from Brunfelsia Calycina Flowers with Anthocyanin-β-glycosidase Activity.

Brunfelsia calycina flowers lose anthocyanins rapidly and are therefore well suited for the study of anthocyanin degradation mechanisms, which are unclear in planta. Here, we isolated an anthocyanin-β-glycosidase from B. calycina petals. The MS/MS (Mass Spectrometry) peptide sequencing showed that the enzyme (72 kDa) was a β-xylosidase (BcXyl). The enzyme showed high activity to p-Nitrophenyl-β-d-galactopyranoside (pNPGa) and p-Nitrophenyl-β-d-xylopyranoside (pNPX), while no activity to p-Nitrophenyl-β-d-glucopyranoside (pNPG) or p-Nitrophenyl-β-D-mannopyranoside (pNPM) was seen. The optimum temperature of BcXyl was 40 °C and the optimum pH was 5.0. The enzyme was strongly inhibited by 1 mM D-gluconate and Ag+. HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography) analysis showed that BcXyl catalyzed the degradation of an anthocyanin component of B. calycina, and the release of xylose and galactose due to hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds by BcXyl was detected by GC (Gas Chromatography) /MS. A full-length mRNA sequence (2358 bp) of BcXyl (NCBI No. MK411219) was obtained and the deduced protein sequence shared conserved domains with two anthocyanin-β-glycosidases (Bgln and BadGluc, characterized in fungi). BcXyl, Bgln and BadGluc belong to AB subfamily of Glycoside hydrolase family 3. Similar to BcPrx01, an anthocyanin-degradation-related Peroxidase (POD), BcXyl was dramatically activated at the stage at which the rapid anthocyanin degradation occurred. Taken together, we suggest that BcXyl may be the first anthocyanin-β-glycosidase identified in higher plants.

Metabolome and Transcriptome Sequencing Analysis Reveals Anthocyanin Metabolism in Pink Flowers of Anthocyanin-Rich Tea (Camellia sinensis).

Almost all flowers of the tea plant (Camellia sinensis) are white, which has caused few researchers to pay attention to anthocyanin accumulation and color changing in tea flowers. A new purple-leaf cultivar, Baitang purple tea (BTP) was discovered in the Baitang Mountains of Guangdong, whose flowers are naturally pink, and can provide an opportunity to understand anthocyanin metabolic networks and flower color development in tea flowers. In the present study, twelve anthocyanin components were identified in the pink tea flowers, namely cyanidin O-syringic acid, petunidin 3-O-glucoside, pelargonidin 3-O-beta-d-glucoside, which marks the first time these compounds have been found in the tea flowers. The presence of these anthocyanins seem most likely to be the reason for the pink coloration of the flowers. Twenty-one differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in anthocyanin pathway were identified using KEGG pathway functional enrichment, and ten of these DEG’s screened using venn and KEGG functional enrichment analysis during five subsequent stages of flower development. By comparing DEGs and their expression levels across multiple flower development stages, we found that anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation in BTP flowers mainly occurred between the third and fourth stages (BTP3 to BTP4). Particularly, during the period of peak anthocyanin synthesis 17 structural genes were upregulated, and four structural genes were downregulated only. Ultimately, eight critical genes were identified using weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), which were found to have direct impact on biosynthesis and accumulation of three flavonoid compounds, namely cyanidin 3-O-glucoside, petunidin 3-O-glucoside and epicatechin gallate. These results provide useful information about the molecular mechanisms of coloration in rare pink tea flower of anthocyanin-rich tea, enriching the gene resource and guiding further research on anthocyanin accumulation in purple tea.

The Antidiabetic Potential of Black Mulberry Extract-Enriched Pasta through Inhibition of Enzymes and Glycemic Index.

In the present work, pasta enriched in different formulations by black mulberry extract in order to inhibit enzymes related to starch hydrolyzation. Total phenol content (TPC), antioxidant activity and anthocyanin components of ethanol/water black mulberry extract were investigated. TPC of the black mulberry extract was found 65.61 ± 0.07 mg GAE/g. Black mulberry extract could scavenge the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals more effectively than tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) also vitamin C due to its detected polyphenolic compounds (cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-rutinoside, and cyanidin-3-xyloside). The IC50 value of the black mulberry extract was obtained 8.31μg/mL while it was measured 59.62 and 62.64μg/mL for TBHQ and vitamin C, respectively. The pasta-enriched with freeze-dried black mulberry extract showed effective inhibition against applied α-amylases (α-amylase from porcine pancreas, Bacillus sp, and human saliva) and α-glucosidase originated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The IC50 values of tested enzymes exhibited that black mulberry effectively act as an inhibitory agent comparing with acarbose because of its antioxidant activity. Results revealed that starch hydrolysis index (HI) and predicted glycemic index (GIpredicted) of cooked pasta-enriched with various concentration levels of black mulberry extract were significantly decreased especially when 1.5% of the extract was incorporated. In addition, The IC50 value of the black mulberry extract obtained from cooked pasta was increased against α-amylase and α-glucosidase. The results obviously presented that diabetes mellitus type 2 could be resolved by enrichment of polyphenolic compounds into the pasta.

Purple Yam Flour (Dioscorea alata L.) Processing Effect on Anthocyanin and Antioxidant Capacity in Traditional Cake “Bolu Cukke” Making

Purple yam (Dioscorea alata L) is a food that has the potential as a source of natural antioxidants, because of the anthocyanin component. Anthocyanin can be damaged from high temperatures (heating) during processing and manufacturing processed products. The purpose of this study was to analyze the content of anthocyanin compounds and the antioxidant activity in purple yam flour before and after processing. The determination of anthocyanin test was done by using pH spectrophotometry method and DPPH method for antioxidant test. The main analysis parameters wereanthocyanin content and antioxidant activity. The results showed that the anthocyanin content in the processing of purple yam to flour and sponge cake was decreased. The highest anthocyanin content of 38.12 mg / 100g is found in purple yam and the lowest is 2.99 mg/100 g in cake “bolu cukke” with 10 grams of purple yam flour. The highest antioxidant activity was 79.08% in purple yam and the lowest was 22.64% in cake bolu cukke with purple yam gram 10 gram addition. The decrease in antioxidant activity is directly proportional to the decrease in anthocyanin levels.

Characterization of phytochemicals and yield components in various okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) genotypes

Yora M, Syukur M, Sobir. 2018. Characterization of phytochemicals and yield components in various okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) genotypes. Biodiversitas 19: 2323-2328. Okra is a group of vegetable and medicinal plants possessing various health benefits. This plant has different shapes, colors and nutritional content. In Indonesia, this plant has not been widely cultivated, because the socialization and information of okra benefits to the Indonesian people are still limited. The aims of this study were to analyze phytochemicals, anthocyanins and carotene content, and to analyze the correlation among okra genotypes based on their morphological characters. This study was conducted from September 2017 to January 2018, using Complete Randomized Group Design with three replications and 13 genotypes namely PB01Nai, PB02Zah, PB03Clem, PB04Stri, PB13-293, PB05-291, PB06-004, PB07-127, PB08P1, PB09P2, PB10-MC, PB11-069, and PB12-OR. The observation was made on the variables of phythochemical, anthocyanin, carotene, chlorophyll and yield components on okra fruit. The results showed that all okra fruits have steroid phytochemical content and some of them had phytochemical content of Saponin and Tanin. Based on the carotene and chlorophyll analysis of 13 okra fruit genotypes, it showed that PB11-069 genotype contained the highest carotene and chlorophyll contents. While okra fruit having the highest anthocyanin content was PB05-291. The results of cluster analysis showed that okra was clustered into three color groups. The anthocyanin content found in okra fruit does not correlated with the yield component variable. Chlorophyll-α, β, and total chlorophyll are positively correlated to carotene in okra fruit and variable number of fruits. The character of number and weight per plant greatly influences the determination of the selection process. Accordingly, the characters can be used as a selection character so as to produce a high yield okra containing high chlorophyll and carotene contents.

Hurmanın (Phoenix dactylifera) Bileşimi ve Antioksidan Özellikleri

Hurma insanlık tarihinde birçok açıdan önemli bir yere sahip olmuştur. Aynı zamanda Hristiyanlık, Musevilik ve İslam gibi dinlerde öne çıkmış bir meyvedir. İçeriğindeki çeşitli bileşenler sağlığı olumlu etkilemektedir. Bu bileşenlerin miktarları hurmanın kuru veya taze oluşlarına, olgunluk derecelerine (Kimri, Khalal, Rutab, Tamer) ve depolanma koşullarına bağlı olarak değişebilmektedir. Hurma antioksidan özelliğe sahip olan karoten, flavonoid, prosiyanidin, antosiyanin ve fenolik bileşikleri içerdiği için iyi bir antioksidan kaynağıdır. Yüksek posa ve antioksidan içeriği ile kardiyovasküler hastalıklar gibi kronik hastalıkların önlenmesinde ve tedavisinde önemli etkileri olabilir. Derleme olarak hazırlanan bu makalede, sağlık üzerine etkileri bulunan hurmanın bileşimi ve antioksidan özelliklerinin tartışılması amaçlanmıştır.

Diversity in flower colorations of Ranunculus asiaticus L. revealed by anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway in view of gene composition, gene expression patterns, and color phenotype.

Anthocyanin biosynthesis is one of the best studied secondary metabolisms. However, related pathways were generally concluded based on anthocyanin components; most studies focused on the backbone forming of anthocyanidins (cyanidin, delphinidin, and pelargonidin) of model or commercial plants, while anthocyanin modification was less discussed, and non-model plants with abundant colorations were less researched either. Ranunculus asiaticus L. has great diversity in flower colorations, not only indicating its value in researching anthocyanin biosynthesis but also implying it is unique in this regard. Based on transcriptome sequencing and gene annotation of three varieties (10 samples) of Ranunculus asiaticus L., 176 unigenes from 151,136 unigenes were identified as involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis, among which, 74 unigenes were related to anthocyanin modification; 61 unigenes were responsible for glycosylation at C3 and C5 with 3-monosaccharides of glucose, 3-biosides of rutinose, sophorose, or sambubiose to form 3Gly-, 3Gly5Gly-, 3Gly3'Gly-, 3Gly2''Gly-, 3Gly2''Xly-, 3Gly2''Rly-glycosylated anthocyanins, etc.; 2 unigenes transferred -CH3; 11 unigenes of BAHD family catalyzd the aromatic or malonyl acylation at 6'' / 6''''position of 3/5-O-glucoside. Based on gene composition, a putative pathway was established. The pathway was validated by flower colorations, and gene expression patterns where F3H, F3'H, 3GT, 5GT, and FMT2 were highly expressed in varieties colored as lateritious and carmine, while variety with purple flowers had high expression of F3'5'H and 3MAT. In view of anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway of Ranunculus asiaticus L., great diversity in its flower colorations was illustrated via the complete branches (F3H, F3'H and F3'5'H) as well as complete modifications (glycosylation, methylation, and acylation), and besides, via the higher percentage of C3 glycosylation than C5 glycosylation.

Changes of Anthocyanin Component Biosynthesis in 'Summer Black' Grape Berries after the Red Flesh Mutation Occurred.

The coloring process of grape flesh is valuable for research and promotion of the high nutritional quality of anthocyanins. 'Summer Black' and it is new red flesh mutant were used to analyze the changes of anthocyanin biosynthesis during grape berry development. Eighteen kinds of anthocyanins were detected in mature berries of the two cultivars, but the content of most 3'- and 3',5'-substituted anthocyanins was higher in the skin of the mutant. Anthocyanin accumulation occurred simultaneously in the skin and flesh of the mutant, and their types and content were more abundant in the former. For the mutant, there were only CHS, OMT, MYBA3, and MYBPA1 at lower transcriptional level in the flesh during veraison when compared with these in the skin, which might be an important factor to limit the anthocyanin accumulation in the flesh. The occurrence of red flesh might be related the enhancement of anthocyanin biosynthesis in the whole berry.

Relationship between Pigment Composition and Peel Color for the Fruit of Chinese Flame Tree

Chinese flame tree (Koelreuteria bipinnata var. integrifoliola), a common ornamental tree in southern China, exhibits a variety of fruit colors among individual plants within the same cultivated field. In this study, 44 plants with different fruit colors were selected to investigate the impact of pigment composition on the coloration of fruit peels. The plants were divided into three groups based on the color phenotype of the fruit peel: red, pink, and green. The values of lightness (L*) were negatively correlated with redness (a*) and positively correlated with yellowness (b*). The correlations of chroma (C*) with the other color parameters differed among the three groups. In the pooled pink and red groups, C* was negatively correlated with both L* and b* and positively correlated with a*, whereas the opposite relationships were found in the green group. According to the pigment analysis, anthocyanins, chlorophylls, and carotenoids were detected in the fruit peels. Anthocyanins were found to be the main pigment responsible for the differences in fruit color among the various groups. The highest anthocyanin content of fruit peel was found in the red group, followed by the pink group; the lowest anthocyanin levels appeared in the green group. The major anthocyanin component in the fruit peels was identified as cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside. By classifying fruit peel color and determining pigment composition, this study provides a theoretical basis for further researching genetic control and regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis genes on pigment accumulation and peel coloration of chinese flame tree.

Isolation of High Purity Anthocyanin Monomers from Red Cabbage with Recycling Preparative Liquid Chromatography and Their Photostability.

Anthocyanins from red cabbage are of great importance for their applications in the food industry as natural colorants and their beneficial effects on human wellness as natural antioxidants. This study aimed to develop an effective method for the isolation of anthocyanins with the help of a combination of alternate recycling and direct recycling preparative liquid chromatography. Ten major components of anthocyanins from red cabbage were isolated and their structures were identified by HPLC-MS/MS. Meanwhile, the stability of the isolated anthocyanins under various light conditions was also investigated so as to provide data for their storage. In sum, the results showed that twin column recycling preparative chromatography is an effective method for the isolation of anthocyanin monomers with similar structures. Besides, the stability of various anthocyanins from red cabbage was related to the number of acylated groups and mainly affected by illumination.