Anthocephalus Cadamba Research Articles

Performance of particleboard made with Neolamarckia cadamba, Leucaena leucocephala, and their 50:50 Admixtures

The performance of a particleboard seems to be related to the chemical constituents of the species and the size distribution the particles. Neolamarckia cadamba (NC) and Leucaena leucocephala (LL) are fast growing species and good potential resources for particleboard production. This study examined the chemical contents of both species, as well as the mechanical and physical performance of particleboard made with 100% NC, 100% LL, and their 50:50 admixtures. High moisture resistance boards were prepared using melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF) at a content of 10, 12, and 14 %. The 30% extra buffering of LL translated to its lower performance for both mechanical and physical properties. The 50:50 admixtures provided enticing results, as it counteracts the impact of lowered performance of 100% LL. All boards passed the mechanical requirements of the BS EN 312 (2003) standard, but they did not meet the requirement for thickness swelling. The internal bond for cyclic test only failed for 100% LL with 10% resin added. With use of wax, the potential of improvement in swelling properties is possible.

Evaluation of Hepatoprotective Potential of Stem Bark of Neolamarckia cadamba against Chloroform and Over dose of Iron Dextran Induced Hepatotoxicity in Experimental Swiss Albino Mice

Abstract: Background: In general, use of herbal medicines are considered as the backbone in traditional system of medicines as it has been used for food, flavoring agents and in the form of medicines. Keeping in knowledge the increasing demand of herbal drugs over their synthetic counter parts and to restrain the worldwide problem of multidrug resistance (MDR) in hepatoprotective activity. Neolamarckia cadamba that is commonly called Cadamb is a standout amongst the most significant therapeutic plants having a place with the Rubiaceae family. It is one of such Ayurvedic cure that has been referenced in numerous Indian restorative written works. The arrangement of work includes gathering and confirmation of stem bark of cadamb plant pursued by shade drying, granulating, and extraction by two-fold cool maceration, phytochemical examination lastly screening of pharmacological exercises as expressed. Aim: The present study was carried out to establish hepatoprotective activity of hydro alcoholic extract of stem bark of Neolamarckia cadamba by using two established hepatotoxic screening models in Swiss albino mice (chloroform induced hepatotoxicity and iron over dose induced hepatotoxicity). Materials and Methods: The hepatoprotective activity of Neolamarckia cadamba was screened by hydro alcoholic extract of stem bark of Neolamarckia cadamba (NCHAE). The experimental animals were treated with corn oil and chloroform for a period of 7 days at a dose of 0.75mg/kg body weight, p.o to induce hepatotoxicity. In the second experimental model over dose of iron dextran induced hepatic damage was performed by administering 100 mg/kg, i.p.upto7 days, 3 consecutive periods. Blood samples were collected for the estimation of biochemical parameters and histopathological changes in liver was also performed. Silymarin (50 mg/kg; body weight) was used as standard referral of hepatoprotective agent. Results: Chloroform and iron over dose treatment were induced higher levels of liver marker enzymes and showed damage of hepatocytes. In histopathological findings there were significant opposed treatment with Neolamarckia cadamba dose dependently. The results indicated that biochemical changes produced by both the hepatotoxicity models were restored to normal by NCHAE. In the present study, the results of NCHAE was found significant hepatoprotective effect (***p<0.01) against both the inducing agents, which was indicated by the enhancement in biochemical parameters. Conclusion: The current study confirmed the hepatoprotective effect of NCHAE against the chloroform induced hepatotoxicity and iron over dose induced hepatotoxicity models and the activity is likely related to its potent antioxidant and ironchelating property. NCHAE therefore needs to be for further in-deep studies to correlate its bioactive constituents responsible for the pharmacological activity selected. Key words: Hepatoprotective, Neolamarckia cadamba, Chloroform, Iron dextran, Hepatotoxicity.

Geographic variation in growth and wood traits of &lt;i&gt;Neolamarckia cadamba&lt;/i&gt; in China

<italic>Neolamarckia cadamba</italic> is an indigenous, timber-producing tree species in Southern China that plays an important role in the sustainable development of the local forestry industry. However, the geographic genetic variation across its natural distribution area in Southern China has yet to be characterized for best utilization. Here, we report the geographic genetic variation in growth and wood properties of <italic>N. cadamba</italic> from 10 provenances that represent the entire natural distribution of<italic> N. cadamba</italic> in Southern China. There was significant geographic variation in diameter breast height (DBH), height (H), volume (V), vessel length (VL), vessel diameter (VD), VL/VD, and wood basic density (WBD). The variation in tree volume across provenances was greater than that of other growth traits, indicating that volume has a greater potential for selection in provenance trials. The provenance heritabilities of growth traits and wood properties ranged from 0.59 to 0.67 and from 0.40 to 0.45, respectively. Trend surface analysis revealed that patterns of geographic variation associated with growth traits were weakly negatively correlated with those of wood properties. The pattern of geographic variation in growth traits showed a gradual increase from the periphery to the central region, whereas wood properties showed the opposite pattern, and latitude had the greatest effect on both. Wood property measurements suggested that the YNMS provenance produced superior timber wood, whereas the GXLZ, GXFCG, and GXNN provenances produced the best pulpwood. These provenances could potentially provide more valuable breeding materials for the genetic improvement of <italic>N. cadamba</italic>.

Furfurylation Effects on Discoloration and Physical-Mechanical Properties of Wood from Tropical Plantation Forests

Wood from tropical plantation forests has lower physical and mechanical properties than mature wood. Furfuryl alcohol (FA) impregnation into the wood could help to enhance hydrophobic properties, dimensional stability, and structural strength. Furfurylation was applied to specimens of the following four fast-growing tropical wood species: jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba), sengon (Falcataria moluccana), mangium (Acacia mangium), and pine (Pinus merkusii). The discoloration and physical and mechanical properties were subsequently measured, and the results showed that furfurylated wood had a darker color and better physical and mechanical properties than untreated wood. Specifically, the furfurylated wood had higher density, modulus of elasticity, and hardness and lower moisture content, water absorption, swelling, and shrinkage. The furfurylation significantly enhanced physical and mechanical properties.

An Effective Biomass for the Adsorption of Methylene Blue Dye and Treatment of River Water

Neolamarckia cadamba leaves were used as an adsorbent for methylene blue removal as well as for the reduction in the water quality parameters of the sewage belts of Yamuna River in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. A variety of water quality parameters were assessed, including chemical oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand, total dissolved solids, conductivity, hardness, pH, and temperature. A great deal of degradation in the water quality parameters collected from three locations within the Yamuna River in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India, has been observed by treating with Neolamarckia cadamba leaves. The adsorption studies were carried out by the batch method, and the effect of various parameters such as contact time, pH, initial concentration, and temperature was assessed. The maximum removal of methylene blue was obtained at pH 5 after 120 minutes of equilibrium time. In addition to fitting the Langmuir isotherm most accurately, the adsorbent also followed pseudokinetics of the second order. The maximum monolayer adsorption capacity of used biomass was 101 mg/g using 50 mg/L methylene blue solution. It is evident from the thermodynamic data that the adsorption is exothermic. Also, the spontaneity of the interaction between adsorbent and adsorbate decreases with temperature. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy techniques were used to characterize the adsorbent. SEM images revealed that the biomass consisted of irregular spherical lumps with a porous structure, which provided effective adsorption sites. A chemical composition analysis of the biomass by EDAX shows that the chemical composition of oxygen and carbon decreases, whereas nitrogen’s chemical composition increases.

Evaluation of anxiolytic and anti-depressant activity of Neolamarckia cadamba in mice

Objective: Evaluation of anxiolytic and anti-depressant activity of Neolamarckia cadamba in mice.&#x0D; Material &amp; Method: The aqueous and methanolic extract of “Neolamarckia cadamba” and chose low medium and high doses for therapy. The behavioral consequences of an oral acute or subacute (10 days) treatment. Neolamarckia cadamba (250 and 500 mg/kg, p.o) aqueous and methanolic stem bark extract assessed in male and female Swiss mice (EPM). Diazepam (1 mg/kg) will also be evaluated. Anti-anxiety drug testing in the lab.&#x0D; Results: Neolamarckia cadamba, acute oral toxicity was detected with different extracts (ENC &amp; AQNC) having dose (5, 50, 300, 1000 mg/kg ) via the oral route, shows no change in behavioral responses and observation shows no acute oral toxicity. Hence depending upon it, Dose was selected 250 mg/kg &amp; 500 mg/kg for our experimental work.&#x0D; Conclusion: Neolamarckia cadamba has both anxiolytic and antidepressant properties, which likely operate through BZD receptors, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The antidepressant and anxiolytic properties of Neolamarckia cadamba ethanolic and aqueous extracts were investigated in Swiss albino mice at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg, respectively. Both extracts (ANC &amp; ENC) showed strong antidepressant and anxiolytic efficacy using TST and EPM parameters.

The Potential of Land Abandonment in Bogor Regency for Community Forest Enterprises

The abandoned land and indicated abandoned land are considered critical land or land that is less productive. Those lands covered about 13,000 ha of Bogor Regency area, with the critical land area of around ​​93,467.51 ha (32%). To reduce the area of critical land and increase land productivity in Bogor can be done by optimizing the abandoned land for private forest use. This study aimed to analyze the potential and opportunities for private forest use in abandoned land. The method used was an investigative approach with quantitative and qualitative descriptive analysis. This study showed that in terms of land characteristics and biophysical conditions, the abandoned land could be developed for private forest business, especially to cultivate forest business, such as sengon (Albizia chinensis), kayu afrika (Maesopsis eminii), jabon (Neolamarckia cadamba), mahoni (Swietenia mahagoni), and kayu manis (Cinnamomum verum). The majority of respondents (65%) were willing to do partnerships in private forests. However, several factors are needed to support this business, i.e., regulations in the form of incentives and disincentives from local governments, investors, facilitators, and market access.

Plant growth promotional studies of novel PGPR strains isolated from the rhizosphere of Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.)Bosser plantations in Narasipuram, Tamil Nadu

Forests of Indian subcontinent are one of the biodiversity hot spots of the world. They are the second-largest inland use next to agriculture, yet possess a high degree of endemism. Plantation forestry in India was initiated mainly for the production of industrial raw materials as well as fuelwood and fodder from exotic species. The increase in demand for industrial raw material has spurred the rise in plantations of fast-growing native tree species. Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser is a native tree species whose wood has been largely used in the pulpwood and pencil industry for making boards, plywood, packing cases, tea-boxes, carving and turnery articles. Supplementation of these native trees with effective bio inoculants will improve and maintain the soil fertility and sustainability in the natural soil ecosystem besides providing economic benefits. In the present study, the diversity of PGPR was assessed in the rhizosphere of N. cadamba plantations in Narasipuram, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. 33 PGPR isolates from N. cadamba rhizosphere were isolated viz. four species of Azotobacter, three species of Azospirillum and six different PSB species. The isolates were studied for their plant growth promotional abilities such as Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) production and phosphate solubilization.

Potassium deficiency inhibits leaf growth and promotes leaf necrotic spots in Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser.

Leaves, being a key plant organ involved in photosynthesis, play an important role in plant growth and development. Although there have been a few studies on the effects of potassium (K+) deficiency on the leaves of woody plants, knowledge about mechanism of necrotic spot formation on leaves during K+ deficiency is scarce. We used a hydroponics setup to understand the effects of K+ deficiency on Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser. K+ deficiency resulted in smaller leaves and necrotic spots on the older leaves, whereas regulatory modules of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in cell proliferation, cell cycle and cell expansion were downregulated. K+ deficiency increased the activity of reactive oxygen species scavenging enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidases and malondialdehyde, and expression of DEGs related to these was also upregulated. Strong diaminobenzidine staining was observed on the older leaves showing accumulation of H2O2 during K+ deficiency treatment. In addition, putrescine and ethylene synthesis genes were upregulated. Fifteen DEGs in response to ethylene signaling, including ETR1, ETR2, EBF1, ERF1 and ERF2, were upregulated in the third week. The leaf growth changes caused by K+ deficiency in N. cadamba were well demonstrated by our findings.

Chromosome-level assembly of the Neolamarckia cadamba genome provides insights into the evolution of cadambine biosynthesis.

Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.), a close relative of Coffea canephora and Ophiorrhiza pumila, is an important traditional medicine in Southeast Asia. Three major glycosidic monoterpenoid indole alkaloids (MIAs), cadambine and its derivatives 3β-isodihydrocadambine and 3β-dihydrocadambine, accumulate in the bark and leaves, and exhibit antimalarial, antiproliferative, antioxidant, anticancer and anti-inflammatory activities. Here, we report a chromosome-scale N. cadamba genome, with 744.5 Mb assembled into 22 pseudochromosomes with contig N50 and scaffold N50 of 824.14 Kb and 29.20 Mb, respectively. Comparative genomic analysis of N. cadamba with Co. canephora revealed that N. cadamba underwent a relatively recent whole-genome duplication (WGD) event after diverging from Co. canephora, which contributed to the evolution of the MIA biosynthetic pathway. We determined the key intermediates of the cadambine biosynthetic pathway and further showed that NcSTR1 catalyzed the synthesis of strictosidine in N. cadamba. A new component, epoxystrictosidine (C27H34N2O10, m/z 547.2285), was identified in the cadambine biosynthetic pathway. Combining genome-wide association study (GWAS), population analysis, multi-omics analysis and metabolic gene cluster prediction, this study will shed light on the evolution of MIA biosynthetic pathway genes. This N. cadamba reference sequence will accelerate the understanding of the evolutionary history of specific metabolic pathways and facilitate the development of tools for enhancing bioactive productivity by metabolic engineering in microbes or by molecular breeding in plants.

A Modelling Study by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) on Turbidity Removal Optimization using Nanocellulose Filter Paper (Neolamarckia Cadamba)

This study observed the influence of initial turbidity, pH and initial temperature on the turbidity removal from the textile wastewater using nanocellulose filter paper from Neolamarckia Cadamba. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) model was employed to optimize and create a predictive model to evaluate the turbidity removal performance on the nanocellulose filter paper. The performance of the RSM model was statistically evaluated in terms of coefficient of determination, R2. The optimum value of turbidity removal of 99.39% were found at 66 NTU, pH 6.4 and 35.9°C. The value of prediction that obtained from modelling (RSM) was in agreement with the experimental values with R2 = 88.23%, AAD = 6.87% and RMSE = 0.18 towards the efficiency of turbidity removal.

Intercropping Short Rotation Timber Species with Teak: Enabling Smallholder Silviculture Practices

Community forest management for timber production requires short- and long-rotation companion species to fulfill the demands of the timber industry, improve farmer welfare and maintain environmental sustainability. Four species (Falcataria moluccana, Neolamarckia cadamba, Acacia mangium and Gmelina arborea) were tested as short-rotation timber crop companion species for teak (Tectona grandis) on dry-rocky soil in the Gunungkidul community forest. The selection of short-rotation timber species was based on growth performance and survival rate at the teak site. Two years after planting, the viability of G. arborea (87.3%) and A. mangium (78.2%) was significantly (p &lt; 0.05) higher than that of N. cadamba (40.6%) and F. moluccana (18.0%). G. arborea and N. cadamba achieved the best growth in terms of height, diameter, basal area, and volume, with the growth of A. mangium and F. moluccana being significantly inferior. Gmelina arborea has the ability to adapt to teak sites, grow well, and accompany teak. Neolamarckia cadamba demonstrated good growth with potential as a teak companion, and it demonstrated limited drought tolerance on the dry-rocky soils of the study sites. Acacia mangium had a high survival but produced slow growth, indicating that it required an advance evaluation in future years. Falcataria moluccana has different growing site requirements to teak so the performance was relatively poor at the study site. This mixed pattern provides benefits to farmers through commercial thinning of short rotations species, 5–8 years post establishment. Thinning operations will also increase the productivity of residual teak stands. The diversification of timber species in community forests can provide earlier returns, enabling the adoption of silviculture management by smallholders and communities.

Phytopharmaceutical potential of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.)

Ever since ancient times, medicinal plants served as a great source of herbal formulations which can confer human civilization with preferential quality of life. Among them, some plants secured their position in mythologies, also highlighting Anthocephalus cadamba, a religious medicinal plant, belonging to the family Rubiaceae, mostly cultivated in tropical regions. Conventional medicinal system of India provides evidences regarding folk medicinal uses for the treatment of various ailments like inflammation, skin diseases, uterine complaints, blood disease and diarrhea etc. Phytochemical investigations revealed the presence of some biologically active compounds like flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, terpenoids, diterpenoids, triterpenes, glycosides, sterols, amides and fatty acids and these compounds were found to be accountable for various pharmacological activities such as antimicrobial, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticancerous, antidibetic, hypolipidemic, antihepatotoxic, antidiarrhoel, diuretic, laxative, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, wound healing etc.

Physiological and Transcriptomic Responses to Nitrogen Deficiency in Neolamarckia cadamba.

Nitrogen (N) is one of the abundant and essential elements for plant growth and development, and N deficiency (ND) affects plants at both physiological and transcriptomic levels. Neolamarckia cadamba is a fast-growing woody plant from the Rubiaceae family. However, the physiological and molecular impacts of ND on this species have not been well investigated. Here, we studied how N. cadamba responds to ND under hydroponic conditions. In a physiological aspect, ND led to a reduction in biomass, chlorophyll content, and photosynthetic capacity. ND also impaired the assimilation of N as the activities of glutamine synthetase (GS) and nitrate reductase (NR) were decreased in the root. Interestingly, the lignin content of stem increased progressively during the ND stress. The main transcription factors, the transcription factors that are important to N regulation has been found to be upregulated, including Nodule inception-like protein 7 (NLP7), TGACG motif-binding factor 1 (TGA1), basic helix-loop-helix protein 45 (BHLH45), NAM, ATAF1,2, CUC2 (NAC) transcription factor 43 (NAC43), and basic leucine zipper pattern 44 (bZIP44). The expression of N transporters, such as nitrate transporter 2.4 (NRT2.4), ammonium transporter 3 (AMT3), and amino acid transporter protein 3 (AAP3), was also upregulated. In addition, phosphorus- and calcium-related genes such as phosphate starvation response 2 (PHR2) and cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel 15 (CNGC15) were expressed more abundantly in response to ND stress. Our results reveal the physiological and molecular mechanisms by which woody plants respond to ND.

Fabrication of Ni-NiO Foams by Powder Metallurgy Technique and Study of Bulk Crushing Strength

Despite the importance of Nickel Oxide (NiO) in diverse functional applications, very little information is available on the mechanical properties of bulk or porous NiO or, mostly unnoticed. In this study, porous Ni-NiO foam was synthesized using space holding-powder metallurgy and sintering methods to produce opened-cell structure with macrogravel and Neolamarckia cadamba (Cadamba flower) like surface morphology. Four different types of porous Ni-NiO with different pore diameter of 35.65 ± 12.77, 36.10 ± 8.85, 68.20 ±7.36 and 62.45 ± 17.48 µm were fabricated for evaluating the effect of porosity on the mechanical properties of bulk porous Ni-NiO foam. The mechanical properties such as bulk crushing force of as synthesized Ni-NiO foam with various porosities such as 20.55, 27.35, 27.85 and 28.82 % exhibited the average crushing load of 115.40, 39.95, 138.10 and 151.20 N, respectively. This study suggests that crushing load of Ni-NiO foam is not only depending on the porosity but also on the sintering temperature and crystallite sizes of NiO. HIGHLIGHTS Ni-NiO foam is synthesized using space holding-powder metallurgy and sintering methods Different pore diameter is fabricated for evaluating the effect of porosity on the mechanical properties of bulk porous Ni-NiO foam Crushing strength of Ni-NiO foam is not only depending on the porosity but also on the sintering temperature and crystallite sizes of NiO GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

A complete sequence of mitochondrial genome of Neolamarckia cadamba and its use for systematic analysis

Neolamarckia cadamba is an important tropical and subtropical tree for timber industry in southern China and is also a medicinal plant because of the secondary product cadambine. N. cadamba belongs to Rubiaceae family and its taxonomic relationships with other species are not fully evaluated based on genome sequences. Here, we report the complete sequences of mitochondrial genome of N. cadamba, which is 414,980 bp in length and successfully assembled in two genome circles (109,836 bp and 305,144 bp). The mtDNA harbors 83 genes in total, including 40 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 31 transfer RNA genes, 6 ribosomal RNA genes, and 6 other genes. The base composition of the whole genome is estimated as 27.26% for base A, 22.63% for C, 22.53% for G, and 27.56% for T, with the A + T content of 54.82% (54.45% in the small circle and 54.79% in the large circle). Repetitive sequences account for ~ 0.14% of the whole genome. A maximum likelihood (ML) tree based on DNA sequences of 24 PCGs supports that N. cadamba belongs to order Gentianales. A ML tree based on rps3 gene of 60 species in family Rubiaceae shows that N. cadamba is more related to Cephalanthus accidentalis and Hymenodictyon parvifolium and belongs to the Cinchonoideae subfamily. The result indicates that N. cadamba is genetically distant from the species and genera of Rubiaceae in systematic position. As the first sequence of mitochondrial genome of N. cadamba, it will provide a useful resource to investigate genetic variation and develop molecular markers for genetic breeding in the future.

Physical and mechanical properties of impregnated polystyrene jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba) glulam

Jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba) laminas were impregnated with polystyrene and reached 21.2% polymer loading. The laminas were manufactured for three-layer glued laminated timber (glulam) using isocyanate glue with glue spread 280 g/m2 and cold-press process. For comparison purposes, untreated glulam as control and also solid wood were prepared. The physical-mechanical properties were evaluated according to the Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS) 234-2003. The results showed that the color of glulam was not different from polystyrene glulam. The density of polystyrene glulam was higher than untreated glulam and solid wood, but the moisture content was lower than the other. The product kinds of solid wood, untreated glulam, and polystyrene glulam did not affect shear strength and modulus of rupture (MOR), while the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of untreated glulam and hardness of polystyrene glulam were the highest values and the other products were not different one each other. Both kinds of glulam fulfilled the Japanese standard in terms of moisture content, MOR, and delamination in hot water, but MOE and shear strength did not. Regarding its advantages, polystyrene glulam could be further developed using a higher wood density.

Engineered bamboo: The promising material for building and construction application in Indonesia

There is a rising gap between supply and demand of wood as building and construction materials. The search of alternative materials to fill in the gap is an urgent concern. Bamboo is one of locally abundant resources; 88 out of 135 species growth in Indonesia is an endemic. It is a renewably material and has comparable characteristics to wood. Notable efforts to reduce the variability of raw bamboo have led to the improved physical and mechanical properties of the engineered bamboo. Laminated bamboo and hybrid laminated bamboo-wood had superior wood strength in comparison to the raw materials. Laminated bamboo produced from andong (Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea (Steud.) Widjaja), mayan (Gigantochloa robusta Kurz), vertically laminated andong bamboo comparable to wood strength class I, I-II and II, respectively. Furthermore, hybrid laminated bamboo-wood andong-manii (Maesopsis eminii Engl.), andong-mayan-jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq.) comparable to wood strength class II and III, respectively. The properties improvement of engineered bamboo demonstrates the potential application of laminated bamboo as a substitution for building and construction material.

Initial Investigation of Sulawesi Moor Macaque (Macaca maura) in Tabo-tabo Forest, South Sulawesi - Indonesia

Sulawesi black crested macaque (Macaca maura) is one of the seven endemic macaque inhabited Sulawesi Island and is mainly found in the Southern part of Sulawesi. This species is classified as an endangered species by the International Union for Conservation and Nature (IUCN). The aim of this research was 1) to examine the homerange of M. maura and daily activity of the species, 2) to determine tree species used by the species as diet sources and resting trees in Tabo-tabo Forest, Pangkep Regency (South Sulawesi – Indonesia). The home range was measured by connecting coordinate points passed by a moor macaque group in the area for 6 consecutive days. Meanwhile, daily activity of the species was monitored by using scan sampling method for sampled individuals in three observation periods. Direct observation was carried out to identify diet and resting tree species. It was found that the moor macaque group had 22.06 ha width of home range with the total distance around 6.64 km. The daily distance spent by the group was between 0.9-1.5 km or in average was 1.1 km. The highest activities known to be feeding (30.4%) and then followed by moving (25.3%). While resting activities was allocated for 24.7%. The least activities recorded were social activities (19.6%). Tree species used by the group as diet and resting trees were Anthocephalus chinensis and Dracontomelon dao. The tree species known to be a diet tree only were Garcinia nervosa, Arenga pinnata, Flacourtia rukam, Ficus. sp, Eugenia cuminii, Gastonia serratifolia, Mangifera sp., Spondias dulcis, and Muntingia calabura.

Multi-Level Genetic Variation and Selection Strategy of Neolamarckia cadamba in Successive Years

Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser is a tropical evergreen broadleaf tree species that could play an important role in meeting the increasing demand for wood products. However, multi-level genetic variation and selection efficiency for growth traits in N. cadamba is poorly characterized. We therefore investigated the efficiency of early selection in N. cadamba by monitoring the height (HT), diameter at breast height (DBH), and tree volume (V) in 39 half-sib families from 11 provenances at ages 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 years in a progeny test. Age-related trends in growth rate, genetic parameters in multi-level, efficiency of early selection, and realized gain in multi-level for growth traits were analyzed. The result showed that genetic variation among families within provenances was higher than that among provenances. The estimated individual heritability values for the growth traits ranged from 0.05 to 0.26, indicating that the variation of growth traits in N. cadamba was subject to weak or intermediate genetic control. The age–age genetic correlations for growth traits were always positive and high (0.51–0.99), and the relationships between the genetic/phenotypic correlations and the logarithm of the age ratio (LAR) were described well by linear models (R2 &gt; 0.85, except the fitting coefficient of genetic correlation and LAR for HT was 0.35). On the basis of an early selection efficiency analysis, we found that it is the best time to perform early selection for N. cadamba at age 5 before half-rotation, and the selection efficiencies were 157.28%, 151.56%, and 127.08% for V, DBH, and HT, respectively. Higher realized gain can be obtained by selecting superior trees from superior families. These results can be expected to provide theoretical guidance and materials for breeding programs in N. cadamba and can even be a reference for breeding strategies of other fast-growing tree species.